Search Results (58)

This study presents a novel approach for optimizing GC-MS/MS performance and ensuring the reproducibility of pesticide residue analysis across diverse food matrices. Analysis of thermally treated (100–280 °C) extracts using GC-MS (scan mode) and FTIR revealed that strawberry and dry mint contain significantly higher concentrations of non-volatile co-extractives of varying chemical natures compared to fennel seeds. It was further elucidated that polar non-volatile co-extractives exhibit a more pronounced negative impact on analytical performance. Consequently, a synergistic approach was developed for strawberry analysis, combining end-column back-flushing with the application of fennel extract as a Natural Analyte Protectant (NAP). For dry mint, optimal results were achieved through a different approach: standard forward carrier gas cleaning combined with a fivefold sample dilution. The developed protocols enabled the efficient analysis of 195 pesticides in strawberries, all achieving LOQs of 0.01 mg/kg. Results demonstrated high precision (RSD < 3% for most analytes) and excellent recoveries (90–110%) at 0.01 and 0.05 mg/kg. Furthermore, 154 and 186 pesticides were successfully validated in dry mint with LOQs of 0.01 and 0.05 mg/kg, respectively. This research demonstrates that efficient column cleaning can be achieved through either back-flushing or the same forward-flow of the carrier gas, depending on whether the non-volatile co-extractives are polar or non-polar. Finally, ethyl acetate (EtOAc) fennel extract is introduced as a highly effective NAP, which is especially advantageous for samples lacking endogenous volatile components while simultaneously containing high concentrations of polar co-extractives. Pesticide residue monitoring was applied for 20 commercial samples, demonstrating high sensitivity. While strawberry samples exhibited excellent regulatory compliance and a total absence of chlorpyrifos, herbal matrices showed a higher chemical burden characterized by multi-residue co-occurrence and MRL exceedances. Full article

In this study, biocarbon adsorbents were obtained from fennel and caraway seeds through microwave-assisted chemical activation with sodium carbonate. The activation process involved carbonizing the raw material at 300 °C for 30 min., followed by impregnation with sodium carbonate at a precursor-to-activator mass ratio of 1:2. Activation was performed at two distinct temperatures—500 °C and 600 °C—with an activation time of 15 min. The structural, textural, and surface chemical characteristics of the obtained biocarbons were investigated using complementary analytical techniques, including low-temperature nitrogen adsorption–desorption isotherms, X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS), scanning electron microscopy (SEM), X-ray diffraction (XRD), Boehm titration, and pH analysis of aqueous extracts. The resulting adsorbents demonstrated low development of specific surface area (109–154 m²/g) and limited sorption capacity for methylene blue (20–32 mg/g). Adsorption experiments indicated that the Freundlich isotherm model most accurately described the data, suggesting multilayer adsorption on heterogeneous surfaces. Thermodynamic evaluations showed the adsorption to be both spontaneous and endothermic. The adsorption mechanism is primarily governed by electrostatic interactions between the cationic dye and surface functional groups, π–π interactions with the carbon structure, and diffusion within mesopores. This study provides a comparative evaluation of microwave-assisted Na₂CO₃ activation of fennel and caraway seed waste and assesses the potential of these biochars for dye removal from aqueous solutions. Full article

Water scarcity and rising fertilizer costs challenge the sustainable cultivation of medicinal and aromatic plants in arid regions. This study evaluated the interactive effects of irrigation intervals (21, 28, and 35 days) and potassium sources (potassium sulfate and feldspar) and rates on growth, yield, essential oil productivity, and nutrient status of fennel (Foeniculum vulgare Mill.) over two consecutive seasons in Middle Egypt. Extending irrigation intervals significantly increased soil electrical conductivity while reducing soil-available potassium, whereas soil pH, organic matter, and bulk density remained unaffected. Frequent irrigation (21 days) markedly enhanced vegetative growth, yield components, seed yield, and essential oil yield, producing up to 69.7 L ha⁻¹ oil compared with 50.5–52.0 L ha⁻¹ under 35-day intervals. Potassium fertilization significantly improved plant performance across all irrigation regimes, with potassium sulfate at 120 kg K₂O ha⁻¹ consistently producing the highest plant height (≈173 cm), number of umbels (≈45 plant⁻¹), 1000-seed weight (≈13 g), seed yield, and oil yield. Potassium sulfate at 120 kg K₂O ha⁻¹ consistently outperformed feldspar, though high-rate feldspar (572 kg K₂O ha⁻¹) significantly improved performance over the control, indicating potential as a supplementary source. Extending irrigation to 28 days reduced water application by approximately 23% compared to 21-day intervals, with acceptable yield levels when combined with adequate potassium supply. Potassium application enhanced seed and herb N, P, and K concentrations and mitigated the adverse effects of prolonged irrigation intervals, particularly under moderate water stress (28 days). Significant irrigation × potassium interactions confirm that optimal potassium nutrition improved water-use efficiency and reproductive performance. Overall, integrating frequent or moderately extended irrigation with an adequate potassium supply—especially soluble potassium sulfate—offers an effective strategy to sustain fennel productivity and essential oil yield under water-limited conditions. Full article

In Chinese cuisine, seasoning oil enhances the aroma and appearance of dishes. This study examined how processing affects flavor release in multi-ingredient oils. Volatile organic compounds (VOCs), relative odor activity value (ROAV), and variable importance projection (VIP) were used to assess flavor changes. Optimal frying was 160 °C for 15 min with 11% green Sichuan peppercorn, 3% ghost pepper, 6% green onion, 0.1% bay leaf, 0.2% deseeded tsaoko, 0.5% star anise, 0.3% fennel seeds, 1.5% dried Erjingtiao chili, 5% ginger, and 2.5% red Sichuan peppercorn. Gas chromatography–ion mobility spectrometry (GC-IMS) and gas chromatography–mass spectrometry (GC-MS) analyzed heating at 150 °C, 160 °C, and 170 °C. Temperature strongly influenced VOC formation; 160 °C produced the most diverse VOCs, including aldehydes, ketones, terpenes, esters, and alcohols. Multivariate analysis identified 73 key compounds (VIP > 1) between 150 and 160 °C, but only 39 between 160 and 170 °C, indicating that high heat reduces complexity. Compounds such as 2-methylpyrazine and (E)-2-heptenal contributed caramel, nutty, buttery notes, with 2-methoxy-3-(1-methylethyl)-pyrazine as the core aroma. Frying at 160 °C balanced sweet, floral, and roasted aromas, offering guidance for precise seasoning oil flavor control. Full article

Natural deep eutectic solvents (NADESs) are emerging green solvents widely applied to improve the extraction of essential oil (EO) through plant tissue pretreatment. Various NADESs, formulated from polyalcohols, sugars, and organic acids, were employed as pretreatment solvents prior to microwave-assisted hydrodistillation (MAHD) to facilitate plant cell wall breakdown and improve the efficiency of EO extraction. The findings revealed that the most effective pretreatment conditions for enhancing EO extraction involved using a NADES composed of choline chloride and glycerol (in a 1:2 molar ratio), applied to fennel seed powder at a solid-to-NADES ratio of 1:6 g/mL. Optimal performance was achieved with 20% water content in the NADES, microwave irradiation at 400 W for 6 min, followed by 96 min of MAHD. Under these conditions, the NADESs-based MAHD achieved the highest EO yield, increasing it from 1.33% with water-based MAHD to 2.70%. Fennel EO demonstrated the strongest antimicrobial activity against S. pyogenes and C. albicans., while the EO obtained from NADES-MAHD using Ch:Gly (1:2) showed the highest antioxidant activity, with 72.41% inhibition. Finally, GC-MS phytochemical analysis of the extracted EOs revealed anethole as the major compound. Notably, the application of NADES, particularly Ch:Gly (1:2), enhanced the relative content of monoterpene hydrocarbons. These findings highlight the superior effectiveness of deep eutectic solvents during the pretreatment stage in enhancing EO production. Full article

This study aimed to assess the chemical composition and antibacterial potential of essential oils (EOs) from two plants: clove buds (Syzygium aromaticum) and fennel seeds (Foeniculum vulgare) EOs. The major compounds, eugenol and estragole, were isolated from these oils and tested against Escherichia coli, Staphylococcus aureus, and Pseudomonas aeruginosa. The EOs were obtained via hydrodistillation and analyzed using Gas Chromatography–Mass Spectrometry (GC-MS). Clove oil was found to be rich in eugenol (68.51%), while fennel seed oil was dominated by estragole (93.30%). Antibacterial activity, assessed by the agar disc diffusion method and supported by MIC/MBC testing, revealed that eugenol exhibited the highest efficacy, with MIC values ranging from 0.58 to 1.15 mg/mL and MBC values from 1.15 to 2.30 mg/mL, particularly against S. aureus and P. aeruginosa. In silico analysis was conducted to evaluate pharmacokinetics, toxicity, and molecular docking interactions. ADME predictions indicated good oral bioavailability and high membrane permeability for both compounds, with eugenol displaying superior solubility and better compliance with Lipinski’s Rule of Five. Molecular docking simulations confirmed the antibacterial potential, with eugenol showing stronger binding affinities to bacterial targets (−7.8 kcal/mol), forming more stable and diverse interactions compared to estragole. However, toxicity predictions indicated potential mutagenic, carcinogenic, and cardiotoxic (hERG inhibition) risks for both compounds. Full article

Selenium nanoparticles (Se NPs) were synthesized from Na₂SeO₃ using Foeniculum vulgare (fennel) seed extract as mild sustainable reductant, coated with chitosan (Ch), and loaded with Paclitaxel (PTX). The PTX release from the Se@Ch–PTX NPs and their cytotoxicity against MDA-MB-231 breast cancer cells was studied in view of an application as drug delivery platform. Thermogravimetric analysis (TGA) showed the thermal stability of the NPs up to 300 °C. UV–vis absorption and Fourier transform IR (FT-IR) spectroscopy allowed to trace surface species originating from the F. vulgare extract on the Se NPs, while the surface of the Se@Ch–PTX NPs is characterized from Ch and PTX functionalities. Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and transmission electron microscopy (TEM) showed approximate spherical shaped NPs with sizes ranging from 10 to 40 nm. Zeta potential measurements showed a clear distinction between the −39 mV found the Se NPs and +57 mV for the Ch–PTX coated NPs. The NPs showed good biocompatibility with red blood cells (RBCs) in hemolytic activity assays, exhibiting no hemolytic effects at concentrations ranging from 50 to 400 µg/mL. In vitro release studies showed a sustained and pH-responsive release pattern with a maximum release of about 80% within 22 h for Se@Ch–PTX at pH = 3.5. The Se@Ch–PTX NPs showed high antiproliferative activity against MDA-MB-231 cells with an IC₅₀ value of 12.3 µg/mL compared to about 36 for PTX and 52 µg/mL for the Se NPs. The reactive oxygen species (ROS) activity as studied through DPPH scavenging showed higher values for the Se@Ch–PTX NPs compared to the Se NP. Full article

Listeria monocytogenes is a foodborne pathogen with a high tolerance to a wide range of environmental conditions, making its control in the food chain a particular challenge. Essential oils have recently been considered as potential antilisterial agents. In this study, the antilisterial effects of 57 EOs were tested on 13 different L. monocytogenes. Thirty-seven EOs were found to be effective in a strain and temperature-dependent manner. At 37 °C, all EOs were effective against at least one strain of L. monocytogenes. However, at 14 °C and 23 °C, 12 EOs, such as Minth, Nutmeg, Neroli, Pepperminth, etc., became drastically ineffective. The efficacy of the EOs increased at the lowest temperature, as only four EOs, such as Dill seed, Juniper, lemon eucalyptus, and sandalwood, were found to be ineffective at 4 °C. Ajowan and thyme were the only EOs that were antibacterial against each strain at all temperatures tested (4, 14, 23, 37 °C). Biofilm-inhibition tests with 57 EOs, performed on polystyrene plates with different surface qualities and stainless steel, using 0.1% and 0.5% final concentrations, showed the outstanding inhibitory abilities of ajowan, geranium, Lime oil, melissa, palmarosa, rose geranium, sandalwood, and thyme. Fennel, lemon eucalyptus, and chamomile had the potential to inhibit biofilm formation without affecting live bacterial cell counts. Ajowan, geranium, thyme, and palmarosa reduced the biofilm to the optical density of 0.0–0.08, OD: 0.0–0.075, 0.0–0.072, and 0.0–0.04, respectively, compared to the bacterium control 0.085–0.45. The mature antibiofilm eradication ability of the EOs revealed the outstanding features of ajowan, geranium Lime, melissa, palmarosa, rose geranium, and thyme by suppressing the established biofilm to one tenth. The different sensitivities of the isolates and the temperature-dependent antilisterial effect of the tested EOs have to be taken into account if an EO-based food preservation technology is to be implemented, as several L. monocytogenes become resistant to different EOs at medium temperature ranges such as 14 °C and 23 °C. Full article

Background: Elettaria cardamomum (Cardamom) and Foeniculum vulgare (Fennel) are well-known spices and are also used as natural mouth fresheners. This study was performed to evaluate their neuroprotective ability based on certain acellular and cellular assays. Methods: Hexane and ethyl acetate extracts were prepared using cardamom and fennel seeds. GC/MS was performed for the identification of important bioactive compounds. Cell-based assays were performed using SH-SY5Y cells. Hydrogen peroxide was used for the induction of oxidative stress, and evaluation was done based on neuroprotection, reduced reactive oxygen species, and restoration of mitochondrial membrane potential (MMP). Additionally, anti-Aβ fibrillization/oligomerization activities were also analyzed along with anti-acetylcholinesterase activity. Results: α-Terpinyl acetate and anethol were identified as major phytocompounds in cardamom and fennel, respectively. Cardamom extracts and α-terpinyl acetate were more potent acetylcholinesterase (AChE) inhibitors than fennel extracts and anethol [IC₅₀ cardamom extracts, 130–150 μg/mL; α-terpinyl acetate, 61.87 μg/mL; anethol, 374.2 μg/mL; fennel extracts, >1 mg/mL] and showed mixed-type inhibition. Only the extracts displayed potent anti-Aβ fibrilization activity (>50%). Anethol showed potent anti-Aβ oligomerization activity (>50%), followed by α-terpinyl acetate and fennel-H (~36%). The neuroprotective potential of the spice extracts/phytochemicals was evaluated in SH-SY5Y cells by using H₂O₂-induced oxidative stress. Cardamom-EA displayed the best neuroprotection (0.01 to 30 μg/mL). No neuroprotection was observed by α-terpinyl acetate and anethol. Cardamom extracts and fennel-H restored the normal reactive oxygen species (ROS) levels at 30 µg/mL and 1 µg/mL, respectively. Conclusion: Overall, the extracts provided better neuroprotection than the pure compounds in cellular assays and displayed strong anti-Aβ fibrilization activity. Full article

In this study, biochars were produced from by-products of the herbal industry, specifically fennel seeds (Foeniculum vulgare), through direct activation by carbon dioxide at two different temperatures. The biochar samples were comprehensively analysed. Additionally, adsorption studies were conducted for methylene blue. The resulting adsorbents exhibited a specific surface area ranging from 2.29 to 14.60 m²/g. The resulting materials displayed a basic character on their surface. The constants for adsorption models were determined for each dye as well as thermodynamic parameters and the kinetics of the process. The sorption capacities of methylene blue for the samples exhibited a range of 22 to 43 mg/g. The adsorption kinetics of the dye on the biochar materials were found to follow a pseudo-second-order model, with the adsorption process best described by the Langmuir isotherm for the DA-800 sample and the Freundlich isotherm for the DA-750 sample. This indicates the development of a monolayer adsorbate on the biochar surfaces. The efficacy of the adsorption process in aqueous solutions of methylene blue was found to increase with rising temperature. Furthermore, based on thermodynamic studies, the adsorption process was found to be spontaneous and endothermic. Full article

This study aimed to assess the effect of using selected herbs as companion crops in soybean cultivation on the yield and overall health of soybeans. A three-year field experiment (2021–2023) was conducted using a randomized block design with three replications, where the primary experimental variable was the sowing method. The innovative cropping system involved cultivating soybeans alongside different companion herbs, such as alyssum (Lobularia maritima L.), fennel (Foeniculum vulgare Mill.), borage (Borago officinalis L.), French marigold (Tagetes patula L.), calendula (Calendula officinalis L.), and a herbal mixture referred to as ‘MIX’. The study showed that cultivation of soybean with fennel improved the quantitative and qualitative characteristics of the yield, with a significant increase in seed yield (on average by 0.27 t ha⁻¹) as well as protein (7.67%) and oil yield (8.57%) compared to the pure soybean crop. The following fungal diseases were identified during the three-year study period (2021–2023): Cercospora leaf blight, Ascochyta blight, Fusarium wilt, and downy mildew. Cultivation of soybean with herbs as companion crops was implemented to improve the health of soybean to a varied extent. Borage, marigold, and calendula companion crops reduced infection of soybean by the fungi C. kikuchii and F. oxysporum. Cultivation with fennel and marigold was also beneficial for soybean health. On the other hand, cultivation with sweet alyssum and a mixture of herbs increased the occurrence of the fungus A. sojaecola. Cultivation of soybean in association with herbs is legitimate and requires further research given the priorities facing 21st-century agriculture. Full article

This study aimed to determine the optimal pressure and temperature for the maximum extraction yield and recovery of lipophilic bioactive compounds (BACs) during the supercritical carbon dioxide extraction (SCO₂) of fennel seeds. For this purpose, the SCO₂ pressure (78.6–361.4 bar) and temperature (35.9–64.1 °C) were varied and optimized, and all of the extracts obtained were analyzed for the volatiles, fatty acids, sterols, tocochromanols and carotenoids. The results showed that the maximum extract yield and content of all of the compounds analyzed favored a higher pressure (320 bar) and lower temperature (40 °C), except for the volatiles, which were the highest at 120 bar and 42 °C. However, the optimal SCO₂ conditions for obtaining the highest overall total lipophilic fraction were 320 bar and 40 °C, respectively. The fennel SCO₂ extract obtained under these conditions contained 18 volatiles (trans-anethole as the major component), 12 fatty acids (oleic and petroselinic as the major compounds), 12 sterols (β-sitosterol and stigmasterol as the major compounds), two pentacyclic triterpenoids (α-, β-amyrin), one tocopherol (α-tocopherol), two tocotrienols (γ-, δ-tocotrienol) as well as two carotenoids (lutein and β-carotene). The SCO₂ proved to be very efficient for the isolation of various lipophilic BACs from fennel, and the results of this study may be of interest to academia and industry. Full article

This study was conducted to determine the sea fennel essential oil (SFEO) yield, composition, and antioxidant activity of leaves, stem, inflorescences, and umbels from seeds of wild sea fennel (SF) (Crithmum maritimum L.) from the Montenegro coast. The chemical composition of isolated essential oil was determined by GC/MS and GC/FID analyses. The antioxidant activity was determined using the DPPH assay. The maximum SFEO yield was found in umbels with seeds (4.77 mL/100 g p.m.). The leaves contained less EO (0.52 mL/100 g p.m.) than immature inflorescence (0.83 mL/100 g p.m.) The minimum EO content was found in the stem (0.08%). Twenty components were isolated from SFEO leaves, twenty-four from inflorescence, thirty-four components from the stem, and twenty-one components from umbels with seeds. Limonene (62.4–72.0%), γ-terpinene (9.5–14.0%), α-pinene (1.4–5.8%), and sabinene (1–6.5%) were found to be the main components of the SFEO from monoterpene hydrocarbons as dominant grouped components (86% to 98.1%). SF plant parts showed differences in chemical profiles, especially in specific and low-represented ingredients. (E)-anethole (4.4%), fenchone (0.5%), and trans-carveol (0.2%) were present only in umbel with seeds, while the β-longipipene (0.5%), (E)-caryophyllene (0.5%), and (2E)-decenal (0.2%) were found only in the stems. The degree of DPPH radical neutralization increased with incubation time. The SFEO isolated from the stems showed stronger antioxidant activity during the incubation times of 20 and 40 min (EC₅₀ value of 5.30 mg/mL and 5.04 mg/mL, respectively) in comparison to the SFEO isolated from the other plant parts. The lowest antioxidant activity was obtained with the SFEO leaves (155.25 mg/mL and 58.30 mg/mL, respectively). This study indicates that SFEO possesses significant antioxidant activities and is animportant component in the food and pharmaceutical industries. It is important to preserve the existing gene pool and biodiversity with rational use SF for the extraction of high-quality essential oils. Full article

Sustainable ecological agriculture is achieved by regulating the benefits of trees. The application of leguminous trees as alley cropping protects and increases soil fertility, improves the quality of water by intercepting pesticides, changes the local climate, improves biodiversity, and thus improves productivity. In order to evaluate the impact of alley cropping upon the growth and productivity attributes of fennel, an experiment was carried out during two seasons. The experiment included eight treatments. Fennel seeds were cultivated between Sesbania alleys and treated with N and endophytic fungi according to the eight treatments. After harvesting the fennel, different parameters were determined and biochemical analyses were conducted. All of the alley cropping treatments showed remarkable superiority in all measures of fennel growth and productivity compared to the sole crop treatment. Among the different alley cropping treatments, applying Sesbania at 4 m spacing with N fertilizer and EF increased most of the studied parameters in terms of the least number of days from planting until harvesting of fennel, herb dry weight, number of umbels, fruit yield, essential oil, N, P, and K content, and pigments. In contrast, the highest plant height was recorded with fennel–Sesbania at 2 m spacing + N fertilizer + EF. Applying fennel–Sesbania at 6 m spacing + N fertilizer + EF treatment resulted in higher stem diameter and increased the number of main branches compared to the other treatments. Full article

Herbal teas are blends of leaves, seeds, fruits, and flowers from various plants that provide relaxation, anti-inflammatory benefits, and immune system support for conditions such as diabetes and asthma. Despite their health benefits, comprehensive lipidomic data on herbal teas are limited in the literature. We used non-targeted liquid chromatography–linear ion trap orbitrap mass spectrometry to identify and correlate the lipid species in the following six herbal tea samples: fennel, ginger, juniper, lemon peel, orange peel, and rosehip. A total of 204 lipid molecular species were identified, and multivariate analysis revealed a significant difference between lipid species in herbal teas. Saturated fatty acids (SFAs) and polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) are significantly abundant in juniper, including ω-3 and ω-6 fatty acids, followed by fennel. Cluster correlations showed that ginger contained mainly sphingolipids and lysophospholipids, whereas fennel was rich in phospholipids. No significant variations in the content of triacylglycerols were observed in any of the herbal teas analyzed. The ratio of PUFAs to SFAs in herbal teas showed that orange peel had the highest ratio, followed by lemon peel and fennel, indicating their potential health benefits. In addition, using high-resolution mass spectrometry, various lipids such as fatty acid esters of hydroxy fatty acids and N-acyl-lysophosphatidylethanolamines were identified and characterized in these herbal teas. This study provides a comprehensive lipid analysis and detailed characterization of lipids in six herbal teas, highlighting their plausible applications in the field of nutrition and various food industries for the development of functional foods. Full article