Search Results (494)

Species of the genus Aristolochia are recognized as a rich source of structurally diverse specialized metabolites; however, the volatile chemical composition and biological properties of several Neotropical species remain poorly characterized. In particular, no information is currently available on the essential oil of Aristolochia lingulata Ule ex Pilg., which motivated this chemical, enantioselective, and preliminary biological investigation. The leaf essential oil was analyzed by GC-MS and GC-FID using nonpolar and polar stationary phases, while enantioselective GC-MS was employed to determine the distribution of selected chiral metabolites. Biological activity was evaluated through acetylcholinesterase, butyrylcholinesterase, pancreatic lipase, DPPH, and ABTS assays. A total of 57 constituents were identified and quantified, accounting for 93.5% and 91.3% of the oil on the two stationary phases. Sesquiterpene hydrocarbons and oxygenated sesquiterpenoids predominated, with dauca-5,8-diene, trans-(E)-nerolidol, β-chamigrene, β-cyclocitral, limonene, δ-amorphene, τ-muurolol, and manool among the main constituents. The oil showed moderate acetylcholinesterase inhibition (IC₅₀ = 79.8 ± 0.3 µg/mL), whereas weaker inhibition was observed against butyrylcholinesterase (IC₅₀ = 176.1 ± 3.3 µg/mL) and pancreatic lipase (IC₅₀ = 190.8 ± 9.4 µg/mL). Radical scavenging activity was also weak in the DPPH and ABTS assays (SC₅₀ = 849.7 ± 7.4 and 338.0 ± 3.9 µg/mL, respectively). Overall, this study provides the first characterization of the essential oil of A. lingulata, revealing a distinctive sesquiterpene-rich volatile profile and moderate enzyme-inhibitory activity. These findings expand the phytochemical knowledge of Neotropical Aristolochia species and provide a basis for further investigation of their bioactive constituents, mechanisms of action, and toxicological safety. Full article

Background/Objectives: Chronic inflammation sustained by cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) and inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) underlies many human diseases, while the cardiovascular liabilities of coxibs have renewed interest in plant-derived alternatives. This study characterised the volatile composition of Corymbia citriodora essential oil under two distillation regimes and identified constituents able to inhibit human COX-2 and iNOS. Methods: Oils obtained by steam distillation (SD) and microwave-assisted steam distillation (MSD) were profiled by GC–MS/MS. All identified constituents were screened with SASA Vina against human COX-2 (PDB: 5KIR, 3LN1), ovine COX-1 (4COX) and human iNOS (3E7G), with native-ligand re-docking validating each protocol (RMSD 0.39–0.84 Å). The lead compound underwent density functional theory (B3LYP/3-21G/CPCM), 100 ns all-atom molecular dynamics, MM/GBSA and MM/PBSA decomposition, and pkCSM ADMET prediction. Results: Sixty-three constituents were identified (99.85% SD; 99.97% MSD). MSD enriched oxygenated monoterpenes (93.23% versus 88.27%), citronellal rose from 38.24% to 48.41%. (Z,Z,Z)-1,5,9,9-Tetramethyl-1,4,7-cycloundecatriene ranked highest at COX-2 (−8.0 to −8.2 kcal/mol) and also bound COX-1 (−8.8 kcal/mol) and iNOS (−6.8 kcal/mol). DFT indicated high kinetic stability (ΔE = 6.12 eV; η = 3.06 eV) and purely non-covalent hydrophobic binding. The COX-2 complex remained stable over 100 ns (Cα RMSD 0.17 ± 0.02 nm), with MM/GBSA and MM/PBSA binding energies of −23.98 and −21.95 kcal/mol and Val523 as the principal hotspot. ADMET prediction returned 96.61% human intestinal absorption and no mutagenicity, hepatotoxicity or hERG I blockade. Conclusions: MSD offers a faster route to a citronellal-enriched oil, and C. citriodora hydrocarbon sesquiterpenes emerge as chemically stable, multi-target COX-2/iNOS scaffolds. Comparable binding at COX-1 indicates that isoform selectivity remains to be established; in vitro enzymatic and cell-based validation is therefore required. Full article

The essential oil (EO) industry generates large volumes of solid distillation residues that are commonly discarded as waste, despite their potential as a source of nutrients and bioactive compounds. This study evaluated the chemical quality and the volatile profile of four types of exhausted biomasses (EBs) obtained after steam distillation of EOs from bay laurel (Laurus nobilis), lavender (Lavandula angustifolia), lavandin (L. angustifolia × L. latifolia) and two industrial hemp specimens (Carifit1p, a breeding line, and Codimono, a cultivar), with a view to their potential valorisation in animal feeding. The nutritional composition of the distillation residues was determined according to AOAC methods, while the headspace volatile fraction was characterised by HS-SPME–GC/MS. The EBs were generally characterised by a high fibre content, with the highest crude fibre and NDF values in whole lavender and lavandin plants, whereas the industrial hemp line Carifit1p showed the highest crude protein (17.1% DM) and ash contents. The volatile profiles of the residues differed markedly from those typical of the corresponding fresh EOs: the bay laurel residue was dominated by monoterpene hydrocarbons (74.5%) with strongly depleted 1,8-cineole (1.9%), while lavender and lavandin retained high levels of β-caryophyllene (35.8% and 32.4%, respectively). Industrial hemp residues were enriched in oxygenated sesquiterpenes, with caryophyllene oxide reaching 21.2% in Carifit1p and exceeding β-caryophyllene. Overall, the results indicate that EO exhausted biomasses retain a species-specific profile of fibre, residual nutrients and less volatile, less water-soluble terpenoids, supporting their potential reuse as feed ingredients and contributing to a more sustainable, near-zero-waste distillation supply chain. Full article

Artemisia annua L. is a medicinal plant characterized by a chemically diverse phytochemical profile and potential relevance for cosmetic and dermatological applications. This study investigated a hydroethanolic A. annua extract through phytochemical characterization, antioxidant evaluation, UV–Vis-based assessment of UV absorption, and exploratory molecular docking. HPLC-DAD-MS/MS supported the assignment and quantitative determination of artemisinin, chlorogenic acid, and isoquercitrin at 0.09, 0.11, and 0.21 mg/mL extract, respectively. GC–MS revealed a diverse composition comprising primary and secondary metabolites, while separate essential oil characterization identified Artemisia ketone as the predominant volatile constituent. Total phenolic and flavonoid contents were 16.82 ± 0.29 mg GAE/g DW and 1.46 ± 0.14 mg RE/g DW, respectively. Concentration-dependent antioxidant activity was observed in DPPH and ABTS assays, with IC₅₀ values of 0.77 ± 0.13 and 0.092 mg dry plant material equivalent/mL reaction mixture, respectively. UV–Vis analysis showed concentration-dependent increases in spectrophotometrically estimated SPF within the evaluated analytical range. At 1.25 mg/mL, the extract exhibited an SPF estimate of 7.20 ± 0.35, a UVA/UVB absorbance ratio of 2.58, and a critical wavelength of 379.3 nm, indicating that UV absorption extended substantially into the UVA region. Exploratory molecular docking yielded the most favorable AutoDock Vina scores for chlorogenic acid toward MMP-1 (−9.0 kcal/mol) and isoquercitrin toward human neutrophil elastase (−8.0 kcal/mol). Overall, A. annua represents a source of phytochemicals with experimentally demonstrated antioxidant activity and measurable UV-absorbing properties, supporting further investigation in appropriately formulated and validated topical systems. Full article

Cryptomeria japonica var. sinensis Miquel (Chinese cedar) is an ecologically and economically vital evergreen conifer endemic to China. Renowned for its rapid growth and superior timber quality, the species has evolved from a traditional forestry resource into a multifaceted model species for phytochemistry and biotechnology. This review synthesizes recent advancements in its biology, chemical profiling, industrial utilization, and molecular breeding. Taxonomically and morphologically distinct from the Japanese variety, Chinese cedar exhibits robust physiological plasticity and complex transcriptomic responses to abiotic stresses. Phytochemically, the tree is a prolific reservoir of volatile essential oils, complex terpenoids, and flavonoids. These bioactive secondary metabolites demonstrate potent antimicrobial, antioxidant, and neuroprotective properties, driving broad applications in modern pharmacology and sustainable agrochemicals. Industrially, the timber is increasingly utilized in the fabrication of advanced engineered structural composites and circular bioenergy production. Concurrently, breakthrough biotechnological platforms including a chromosome-level reference genome assembly, multi-omics, somatic embryogenesis, and CRISPR/Cas9-mediated genome editing have advanced molecular breeding, accelerating the targeted development of climate-resilient and non-pollen-producing (hypoallergenic) elite cultivars. However, as global climate change and historical habitat fragmentation severely threaten ancient wild populations, this review advocates for integrated in situ and ex situ conservation strategies. By identifying critical research gaps in translational pharmacology, precision gene editing, and comparative genomics, this review provides a comprehensive foundation for understanding the biology, phytochemistry, biotechnology, and utilization of this invaluable botanical resource, offering a strategic roadmap for its sustainable management and commercial valorization. Full article

Pelargonium graveolens L’Hér. is a widely distributed aromatic plant that has been utilized in traditional medicine for an extended period. It is currently experiencing a surge in popularity in modern phytotherapy. The ethnopharmacological uses of this species include treatment of respiratory tract infections, digestive disorders, and analgesia. The plant’s multifaceted biological activity is attributed to the presence of monoterpenes, such as citronellol and geraniol, as well as non-volatile polyphenolic fractions and organic acids. Research has demonstrated the efficacy of PGEO (P. graveolens essential oil) in mitigating inflammation, a phenomenon attributable to the suppression of NF-κB and MAPK signaling pathways, as well as the inhibition of inflammatory mediators such as histamine, prostaglandins (PGs), and nitric oxide (NO). Furthermore, a broad spectrum of antimicrobial activity has been demonstrated against pathogens such as MRSA and Mycobacterium tuberculosis, whilst myricetin derivatives have been shown to enable the effective eradication of bacterial biofilms. It is also noteworthy that the oil’s components can reduce ACE2 receptor expression, indicating their potential to inhibit SARS-CoV-2 infection. Active compounds, such as geraniol, have been shown to modulate metabolic processes through interaction with LXR and FXR nuclear receptors. In addition, these compounds have been observed to exhibit spasmolytic effects within the gastrointestinal tract by blocking calcium channels. The influence on the HPA axis and the GABAergic system provides a scientific rationale for the plant’s traditional use in reducing stress and anxiety. Nevertheless, variations in chemical composition, determined by geographical origin, and an insufficient number of rigorous clinical data hinder the full medical implementation of this plant. It is imperative that further standardization of extracts and their verification in clinical trials is undertaken. Full article

Bay laurel (Laurus nobilis L., Lauraceae) is an important Mediterranean aromatic species widely used as a culinary spice and a source of bioactive constituents. This study aimed to evaluate the essential oil (EO) composition, macronutrient content, polyphenolic profile and antioxidant activity of bay laurel along the Croatian Adriatic coast. A total of 49 volatile compounds were identified in dried leaves using GC–MS, representing 99.27–100.00% of the EO composition. The EOs were dominated by oxygenated monoterpenes (86.51–95.55%), with 1,8-cineole (42.40–56.83%), α-terpinyl acetate (6.89–12.76%), sabinene (6.10–8.65%), linalool (2.06–14.46%), and methyl eugenol (0.45–10.10%) as the major constituents. Polyphenolic profile obtained by spectrophotometric methods showed that total polyphenol content ranged from 6.03% to 9.65%, tannins from 1.81% to 4.76%, flavonoids from 0.23% to 0.71%, and total phenolic acids from 1.34% to 3.03% (rosmarinic acid equivalents) and 2.51% to 5.66% (chlorogenic acid equivalents). Furthermore, we highlighted the antioxidant activity of Croatian bay laurel using the 2,2′-azino-bis(3-ethylbenzothiazoline-6-sulfonic acid) (ABTS), 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH), and ferric reducing antioxidant power (FRAP) assays. Ethanolic extracts exhibited higher antioxidant activity than aqueous extracts, reaching 74.58–82.03% ABTS inhibition and 57.93–69.54% DPPH inhibition. This study provides the first integrated characterization of Croatian bay laurel leaves and highlights their antioxidant potential. Full article

Background/Objectives: Extensively drug-resistant Gram-negative pathogens severely limit antimicrobial treatment options. This study evaluated the in vitro antibacterial activity of six essential oils obtained from Romanian medicinal plants against extensively drug-resistant clinical isolates and interpreted the antibacterial findings in the context of their previously reported chemical composition. Methods: Forty-one non-duplicate clinical isolates were included: (i) Acinetobacter baumannii (n = 21); (ii) Klebsiella pneumoniae (n = 14); (iii) Pseudomonas aeruginosa (n = 4); and (iv) Providencia stuartii (n = 2). The chemical composition of the six essential oils from Thymus vulgaris, Thymus pannonicus, Satureja montana, Mentha × smithiana, Mentha × piperita, and Lavandula angustifolia had been previously characterized by gas chromatography–mass spectrometry (GC-MS), and the corresponding compositional data were used in the present study. Antibacterial activity was assessed using disk-diffusion, disk-volatilization, and broth-dilution assays to determine minimum inhibitory and minimum bactericidal concentrations. Results: Satureja montana contained 60.9% carvacrol, T. vulgaris 44.6% carvacrol, and T. pannonicus 34.9% thymol. S. montana showed the strongest overall antibacterial activity, followed by T. vulgaris and T. pannonicus. A. baumannii isolates showed the greatest overall inhibitory response; S. montana produced direct-contact inhibition zones ≥ 25 mm in all 21 isolates and vapor–phase zones of 25–29 mm in 17 of 21 isolates. K. pneumoniae showed oil-dependent inhibition patterns, while the findings for the two P. stuartii isolates were interpreted descriptively because of the limited subgroup size. The four P. aeruginosa isolates showed the lowest overall inhibitory response, particularly in the vapor phase assay. MIC and MBC findings broadly supported the diffusion-based results, whereas L. angustifolia showed the weakest overall activity. Conclusions: Essential oils rich in phenolic monoterpenes, particularly those containing carvacrol or thymol, showed promising in vitro activity against extensively drug-resistant Gram-negative clinical isolates. These findings do not establish clinical efficacy and require confirmation in larger isolate collections using standardized assays, including cytotoxicity, biofilm, formulation, and synergy studies. Full article

This study is the first report on the chemical composition and antimicrobial activity of Chaerophyllum bulbosum L. sampled from the Armenian flora. Essential oil (EO) and hydrosol were obtained from the aerial parts by hydrodistillation, and their chemical compositions were determined by GC–MS, identifying a total of 48 volatiles. The EO was composed of 60.42% monoterpenes and their oxygenated derivatives and 18.75% sesquiterpenes and their oxygenated derivatives, while the hydrosol was composed of 75% oxygenated monoterpenes, with the remaining 20% and 5% being monoterpenes and sesquiterpenoids respectively. Pulegone (21.55%) was identified as the major constituent. With regard to the non-volatile fraction, the methanolic extract displayed a total phenolic content of 1.17 ± 0.03 mg GAE/g dry weight and a total flavonoid content of 0.62 ± 0.02 mg QE/g, as well as significant antioxidant capacity, with IC₅₀ values of 2.87 ± 0.06 μg Trolox/g dried plant sample for the DPPH^• assay and 46.87 ± 1.2 μmol Fe²⁺/g dried plant sample for the FRAP assay. The evaluation of EO and hydrosol antimicrobial properties revealed notable antibacterial activity against Gram-positive bacteria, with inhibition zones ranging from 13.5 to 20 mm. The respective minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) values ranged from 0.4 to 6.0 mg/mL for the EO and from 62.5 to 400 μL/mL for hydrosol, while the minimum bactericidal concentration (MBC) values ranged from 0.8 to 10.0 mg/mL and from 125 to 800 μL/mL, respectively. Streptococcus mutans was the most susceptible microorganism (MIC = 0.4 mg/mL), whereas Pseudomonas aeruginosa was the most resistant (MIC = 6.0 mg/mL). Both the EO and hydrosol exhibited antifungal activity against Candida albicans, with inhibition zones of 13.0 ± 1.2 mm and 11.0 ± 0.8 mm, respectively. The MIC and MBC values were 1.0 and 2.0 mg/mL for the EO, while the respective values for the hydrosol were 400 and 800 μL/mL. These findings highlight the C. bulbosum plant as a promising source of bioactive compounds with significant activity against Gram-positive bacteria and moderate antifungal effects that may be associated with the high content of pulegone, a monoterpene known for its membrane-disruptive properties. Full article

The analytical characterization of essential oils (EOs) is often interpreted primarily in terms of biological variability, although analytical conditions may also affect compositional profiling and data comparability. In this study, the influence of chromatographic conditions on gas chromatography–mass spectrometry (GC–MS) profiling was investigated. Five EOs representing chemically diverse plant matrices, including Pistacia lentiscus (resin and stem) and leaf oils from Salvia rosmarinus, Laurus nobilis, and Thymus vulgaris, were analyzed using two capillary columns with different stationary phases: RTX-5MS (5% phenyl-substituted polysiloxane) and CP-Sil 5 CB (100% dimethylpolysiloxane). Comparative analysis revealed reproducible differences in chromatographic profiles and relative peak-area distribution, particularly within terpene-rich regions containing structurally related compounds. The most pronounced effects were observed for highly volatile monoterpenes, which were underrepresented under CP conditions. These findings demonstrate that chromatographic selectivity and column geometry may affect the semi-quantitative representation of EO profiles and contribute to variability in reported compositions. Overall, the results highlight the importance of carefully controlled analytical conditions in EO characterization. Full article

Hyptis eriocephala is an aromatic Lamiaceae species from southern Ecuador whose essential oil has not previously been characterized. To establish an initial phytochemical and biological baseline, aerial parts collected at Villonaco were subjected to three independent steam-distillation runs, yielding 0.13 ± 0.04% (w/w) essential oil. Volatile constituents were tentatively assigned by GC–MS using concordant EI mass-spectral and linear retention-index evidence, whereas relative composition was determined by GC–FID peak-area normalization without an internal standard, calibration curves, or response correction factors. Sixty-five constituents accounted for 96.81% of the total GC–FID peak area. The relative profile was dominated by hydrocarbon sesquiterpenes (67.88%), followed by hydrocarbon monoterpenes (24.36%), with α-copaene (28.20 ± 0.24%), germacrene D (9.29 ± 0.09%), α-pinene (6.98 ± 0.03%), α-cubebene (6.70 ± 0.06%), δ-cadinene (6.03 ± 0.07%), limonene (5.44 ± 0.05%), (E)-caryophyllene (5.31 ± 0.05%), and β-phellandrene (4.96 ± 0.02%) were the principal constituents. The oil showed a narrow antibacterial response, with MIC values of 250 µg/mL against Enterococcus faecium ATCC 27270 and 2000 µg/mL against Enterococcus faecalis ATCC 19433. Radical-scavenging activity was assay-dependent: activity was measurable in the ABTS assay (SC₅₀ = 76.87 ± 1.05 µg/mL; TEAC = 30.06 ± 1.16 µM TE/g EO), whereas 50% DPPH scavenging was not reached at 8000 µg/mL. The oil preferentially inhibited BuChE (IC₅₀ = 125.3 ± 1.03 µg/mL) over AChE (IC₅₀ = 385.9 ± 1.02 µg/mL). These findings establish a preliminary phytochemical and biological baseline for the Villonaco material but do not demonstrate a species-wide chemotype, mechanism of action, or therapeutic potential. Full article

Finger lime (Citrus australasica) is an emerging high-value fruit species, yet the chemical profiles of Mediterranean-cultivated varieties remain underexplored. This study presents the first chemical characterization of two finger lime varieties, Pink Ice and Green Crystal, grown in Greece, providing the first report on the volatile and non-volatile composition of Green Crystal. Peel essential oils were extracted and analyzed through GC-MS across two harvesting periods (H1 and H2), while methanolic extracts were assessed for their total phenolic content (TPC) and DPPH radical scavenging activity. Non-volatile untargeted profiling was performed on stage H1 extracts using UHPLC-MS/MS. The results revealed a significant chemical divergence between the varieties. Green Crystal exhibited an unprecedented p-cymene/β-phellandrene/citronellal/citronellol volatile chemotype, while Pink Ice displayed a limonene/p-cymene/sabinene/terpinen-4-ol chemotype. Maturity of the fruit significantly influenced monoterpene distribution, with an increase in monoterpene hydrocarbons at the expense of oxygenated derivatives. TPC peaked at stage H1, showing a significant maturity-dependent decline in both varieties, whereas DPPH radical scavenging capacity remained stable across both harvests. UHPLC-MS/MS analysis annotated 58 metabolites, including several compounds reported for the first time in the species. Variety-specific tendencies were observed, with Pink Ice exhibiting greater diversity in flavanones, flavonols, and simple coumarins, whereas Green Crystal exhibited greater diversity in flavones, furanocoumarins, and HMG (hydroxy-3-methylglutaric acid)-flavonoid conjugates. These findings demonstrate that variety selection and harvesting timing are critical parameters for optimizing the commercial and bioactive value of Mediterranean-grown finger lime, highlighting the significant potential for expanded cultivation in the region. Full article

Essential oils are increasingly investigated for their potential use in plant protection because of their insecticidal, fumigant, repellent, behavioural, and antifungal activities. This narrative review with a structured literature search synthesizes evidence relevant to European plant protection, focusing primarily on stored-product pests, with additional consideration of pests and plant pathogens outside storage systems, stage-specific susceptibility, formulation, practical limitations, and the EU regulatory framework. EO efficacy was strongly influenced by chemical composition, concentration, formulation, exposure time, developmental stage, target species, and environmental conditions. The strongest evidence was identified for stored-product pests (Coleoptera), although stage-specific susceptibility varied among species. Under field conditions, the practical application of essential oils remains challenging due to their high volatility, short persistence, sensitivity to environmental conditions, potential phytotoxicity, formulation requirements, and limited field validation. Methodological differences among assay types also limit direct comparison across studies. In the EU, regulatory acceptance remains substance-specific, with whole essential oils assessed separately from their individual volatile constituents. Most available evidence is derived from laboratory studies, while greenhouse and field validation remains limited. No formal methodological quality or risk-of-bias assessment of individual studies was performed. Overall, essential oils should be regarded as complementary, application-specific tools whose contribution to more sustainable plant protection depends on improved standardization, formulation, field validation, safety, economic viability, and regulatory acceptance. Full article

Essential oils are widely recognised for their bioactive properties and therapeutic effects. Despite their potential, their practical application is often limited by intrinsic physicochemical constraints, including volatility, chemical instability, hydrophobicity and, most of all, compositional complexity. The development of effective delivery systems is therefore key to stabilise essential oil constituents, improve bioavailability and enable controlled release. Here we provide a comprehensive analysis of formulation strategies for essential oils, focusing on emulsification and encapsulation techniques. Emulsion-based delivery systems, including nanoemulsions and microemulsions, are discussed in relation to their interfacial behaviour, surfactant interactions and preparation methods. In parallel, encapsulation systems, such as vesicular systems, lipid-based carriers, polymeric nanoparticles and inclusion complexes, are evaluated according to their structural characteristics, protective capabilities, encapsulation efficiencies and release profiles. Collectively, these approaches are examined in the context of their influence on the stability, functionality, and overall performance of essential oil formulations. Emphasis is placed on essential oil-specific challenges that arise when preparing a formulation, especially the heterogenous nature of their chemical composition and its impact on physicochemical properties, partitioning, loading capacity, stability and safety. To contextualise these principles, representative examples of essential oil-based formulations (e.g., thyme, clove, rosemary and mint), formulated singular metabolites (e.g., carvacrol, eucalyptol, limonene and eugenol) and essential oil patent applications (>20,000) and products are outlined to illustrate behaviour and performance within the respective delivery system. Overall, the fundamental design considerations that guide the rational selection, preparation and evaluation of formulations for essential oil-based applications are discussed. Considerations for future directions are also outlined. Full article

Understanding how liquid hydrocarbons flow through nanoporous shale matrices is essential for predicting shale oil productivity and evaluating unconventional resources. Despite substantial advances in geological and geochemical characterization, the physical and chemical mechanisms governing oil mobility in tight shale media remain incompletely constrained. This knowledge gap has become particularly evident through an anomalous phenomenon: the prolific production of low-volatile black oil from low- to medium-maturity, extremely tight shale reservoirs, where such viscous oils were previously expected to exhibit limited mobility. This unexpected behavior challenges existing physical models of oil flow. In this Perspective, we revisit the key controls on oil mobility by integrating available geological, geochemical, and reservoir evidence, including the influence of lithofacies on pore systems, the effects of thermal maturity and organic matter on fluid properties, the mechanisms of overpressure generation, and the interactions between hydrocarbons and shale matrices. We particularly emphasize the physical–chemical interaction processes between hydrocarbons and shale matrices, which have been largely overlooked in previous models. Based on these analyses, we propose a conceptual cross-scale migration–accumulation framework for shale oil and discuss its implications using representative shale systems from North America and China. The available evidence indicates that oil mobility is jointly controlled by mineral composition, pore structure, pressure coefficients, hydrocarbon physical–chemical properties, and hydrocarbon–matrix coupling. Thermal maturity emerges as a key parameter because it modulates several of these controls and therefore affects effective oil flow. Despite regional differences, broadly comparable controls may operate across different shale systems. Laminated carbonate-rich shales deposited under saline conditions exhibit high oil mobility even at low maturity, whereas clay-rich freshwater lacustrine shales require higher maturity to achieve comparable flow. The proposed framework links pore-scale processes with reservoir- and basin-scale accumulation and may provide a conceptual basis for evaluating movable oil resource potential in different shale systems. Full article