Search Results (228)

Objectives: The aim of this paper is to determine whether leg kinematics and the normal force generated during the stance phase of running differed between (i) long-distance runners with medial tibial stress syndrome (MTSS) or (ii) long-distance runners who were asymptomatic at baseline testing but developed MTSS compared to asymptomatic control participants. Methods: Lower-limb kinematics, normalised stance-phase forces and spatiotemporal outcome variables were compared between the limbs of MTSS symptomatic long-distance runners (n = 11) and matched asymptomatic controls (n = 11). Outcome variables were also compared between the limbs of long-distance runners who were asymptomatic at baseline but developed MTSS (n = 4) compared to asymptomatic control limbs. Results: In the case-control comparison, MTSS symptomatic participants demonstrated slower running speeds but no differences in stance-phase normal forces or kinematics compared to asymptomatic controls. In the case study, participants who developed MTSS during the study displayed substantially lower normal forces, less plantar flexion and a more vertical tibia than the asymptomatic controls. Conclusions: The slower running speeds observed among the MTSS symptomatic participants may be pain-related or reflect reduced plantar flexor propulsive capacity. The development of MTSS by Participants 1 and 2, despite lower normal forces and plantar flexion compared with asymptomatic controls, suggests that the tibial load tolerance may vary among individuals. Furthermore, the peak stance-phase force appears to have limited utility as a standalone screening tool for MTSS injury risk. Finally, further prospective research is required to investigate plantar flexor function, propulsive force capacity and the risk of MTSS development to substantiate these findings. Full article

Exercise-induced hypertension (EIH) has been linked to unfavorable cardiovascular outcomes; however, its implications for cardiac structure and function in middle-aged endurance athletes remain unclear. In the present study, cardiac remodeling was assessed using echocardiographic indicators, including left atrial diameter (LAD), left ventricular wall thickness, left ventricular mass (LVM), left ventricular mass index (LVMI), and the E/E′ ratio. This cross-sectional investigation examined 73 male long-distance runners aged 40–65 years, defined as individuals with ≥5 years of running experience and regular endurance training, classified according to maximal systolic blood pressure (SBPmax) during graded exercise testing: an exercise-induced hypertension group (EIHg; n = 35) and a non-EIH group (NEIHg; n = 38). Compared with the NEIHg, runners in the EIHg exhibited greater LAD, wall thickness, LVM, and LVMI (p < 0.05), whereas systolic function did not differ between groups. The E/E′ ratio was higher in the EIHg, suggesting subclinical alterations in diastolic function. LAD correlated with SBPmax, maximal diastolic blood pressure (DBPmax), LVM, and LVMI, while LVMI correlated with SBPmax but not resting systolic blood pressure. E/E′ was associated with DBPmax, LVM, and LVMI. Exploratory multivariable regression analysis showed that peak exercise systolic blood pressure remained associated with LVMI, whereas LAD was associated with SBPmax, BMI, and VO₂max. These findings suggest that exaggerated exercise blood pressure responses are associated with cardiac remodeling and early diastolic alterations in middle-aged endurance runners. However, causal relationships cannot be established due to the cross-sectional design. Full article

Objectives: The purpose of the present study was to examine the acute effects on hematological, inflammatory, cellular, muscular, myocardial, liver, biliary, and humoral immunity biomarkers during and after a 12-h track ultra-marathon event. Methods: Twelve healthy male ultra-marathon runners completed the race and all measurements, including venous blood sampling performed before the race (PRE), at 6 h during the race (MID), and immediately after finishing (POST). Results: White blood cells, neutrophils, monocytes, basophils, and platelets increased at 6 h (MID) and remained elevated after the finish (POST), while eosinophils and lymphocytes decreased at mid-race and remained suppressed until post-race. The immunoglobulin G and C-reactive protein increased post-race compared to pre- and mid-race values, while lactate dehydrogenase and interleukin-6 increased at mid-race, with no further change until post-race. Creatine kinase, creatine kinase-MB, high-sensitivity cardiac troponin I, aspartate aminotransferase, and alanine aminotransferase significantly increased mid-race and showed a further significant increase post-race. Significant correlations were found between total distance covered and the percentage of PRE-MID difference of interleukin-6 and the percentage of PRE-POST difference of interleukin-6 and lactate dehydrogenase. Conclusions: The results of the present study indicate that participation in a 12-h track ultra-marathon is associated with marked exercise-induced alterations in multiple hematological and biochemical biomarkers, with several responses already evident at mid-race (6 h). Full article

This study aimed to examine the nutrient intake in Polish middle-distance runners. The secondary objective was to examine the biochemical profile and antioxidant status in the blood serum of the runners, and then compare to the control group. The research was conducted among 44 volunteers. Information regarding participants’ diet was gathered for three days before the study took place. Also, blood serum of athletes and control subjects was examined to obtain information about their antioxidant status, biochemical parameters, and micro- and macronutrients. This study showed that runners consumed more protein, sodium, zinc, phosphorus, water, vitamin A and E than the control group. The daily intake of selected vitamins, micro- and macronutrients in a group of athletes is approximately two times higher than in the control group. The control group consumed more polyphenols compared to the runners group (p < 0.05). The consumption of phenols was almost two times lower among runners compared to non-runners. The higher uric acid concentration (p = 0.025) and lower chloride concentration (p = 0.011) were observed in the blood serum of runners compared to the control group. The diet of middle-distance runners is well-balanced but need some modifications, especially regarding the intake of vitamin E, folates and polyphenols. Full article

Background: Compound muscle action potential (CMAP) parameters provide objective information on peripheral neuromuscular function, yet comparisons between track athletes and sedentary individuals remain limited, particularly when stratified by sex. This exploratory study examined whether CMAP parameters differ between sprinters and sedentary controls, with a secondary descriptive analysis of female middle-distance runners. Methods: A total of 48 participants (27 females, 21 males) aged 15 to 28 years were recruited by convenience from a restricted-access athletic population. The main comparisons focused on sprinters versus sex-matched sedentary controls, analyzed separately in females (9 sprinters, 10 controls) and males (10 sprinters, 11 controls). Female middle-distance runners (n = 8) were retained as an exploratory subgroup. Bilateral peroneal nerve conduction studies were performed in the extensor digitorum brevis. Outcomes included latency, amplitude, nerve conduction velocity, and CMAP duration. Main comparisons used Welch’s t-tests, supplemented by Mann–Whitney U tests. Effect sizes (Hedges’ g) and 95% confidence intervals were reported. A BMI-adjusted model examined whether the main female finding remained after accounting for BMI. Results: Female sprinters showed significantly higher right-sided CMAP amplitude than sedentary females (Welch p = 0.017; Hedges’ g = 1.32; 95% CI of the mean difference, 0.68 to 5.44 mV), supported by non-parametric testing (p = 0.025). The group effect remained significant after BMI adjustment. No other comparisons reached statistical significance. In males, no significant differences were observed. Conclusions: The main finding was a higher right-sided CMAP amplitude in female sprinters compared with sedentary controls, reasonably consistent across complementary parametric, non-parametric, and BMI-adjusted analyses. Given the small sample and exploratory design, these findings warrant cautious interpretation and replication in larger studies. Full article

Background: We aimed to (i) identify the factors associated with performance in non-elite runners, (ii) present the terms and definitions/attributes used to characterize runners, and (iii) identify how performance has been operationalized. Methods: Our search was conducted using the databases PubMed, Web of Science, Medline Ovid, Cochrane, PsycInfo, Scielo, Scopus, and SportDiscus in October 2023 and updated in February 2026. Original articles that assessed factors associated with performance in non-elite runners competing in distances ranging from 5 km to ultramarathons were included. The findings were summarized by race distance. The Joanna Briggs Institute Analytical Cross-Sectional Studies critical appraisal tool was used for quality assessment. Results: A total of 4151 studies were identified, and 66 studies were included in the final selection. “Recreational” and “athletes” were the most used terms, and finish time was the most common indicator of performance. Performance decline was influenced by arm circumference and mid-axillary skinfold thickness, smoking, body mass index, alcohol consumption, and weather characteristics. Training variables, physiological determinants, and social variables were positively related to performance. Conclusions: The field struggles with a lack of clarity regarding the nomenclature and criteria used to categorize runners. The relevance of a predictor differs according to race distance, with physiological aspects becoming less important at higher distances (i.e., marathon and ultramarathon). Full article

Background: Research on vibrations induced by running has gained significant attention due to its implications for athletes’ performance, injury prevention, and overall well-being. Distance running exposes the body to repetitive impulsive forces, causing significant vibrations to travel through physiological systems and biomechanical structures. These vibrations increase fatigue and the risk of injury. Although it has gained importance, research on induced vibration during running and wearable equipment for monitoring is scarce. This study aims to evaluate the performance of a measurement system for monitoring the acceleration levels of induced vibrations during long-distance running, exploring the capability of non-invasive wearable devices to characterise vibration transmissibility and exposure. Moreover, a preliminary quantitative assessment of induced vibration levels for an indoor testing scenario is given. Methods: Metrological characterisation of Xsens Motion Trackers Awinda (MTw), off-the-shelf inertial magnetic motion trackers, was performed by measuring the sensors’ frequency bandwidth in a controlled environment, providing logarithmic sweep sine excitations at different levels (2 g, 5 g, 7 g, where g is meant to be the gravitational acceleration). A testing protocol for indoor testing was derived from the literature, allowing characterisation of the sensors’ behaviour in terms of vibration transmissibility and exposure detection in the intended application. Time domain and frequency domain analyses were conducted by following the ISO 2631 standard guideline for vibration exposure assessment, and measurement uncertainty was defined, either for the dynamic correction of the sensors’ frequency behaviour or for the computed time and frequency domain metrics. In this framework, a treadmill-based test was conducted. The aim was to evaluate the Xsens sensors’ performance in measuring vibration dose exposure and transmissibility. Three MTws were placed on the subject’s right tibia, back, and forehead using elastic bands. A 25-year-old female amateur runner completed a series of tests consisting of walking for 1 min at 3.5 km/h (instrumentation setup), followed by running at two speeds (8 km/h and 11 km/h) for 2–4 min per trial, with 5 min rest periods between tests. Conclusions: The tested measurement system showed promising results due to its capability to assess vibration exposure during sports activities, but dynamic correction was found to be mandatory for accurate vibration level assessment. The main outcome of this study is a method for characterising the accelerometers embedded in the proposed devices, along with an analysis strategy for future testing campaigns. Thanks to the portability of IMUs (inertial measurement units), this approach enables the evaluation of induced vibrations during in-field running measurements. Full article

Background: This study examined the acute effects of post-run plantar fascia recovery training (PFRT) on dorsal kinetic chain performance (DKCP) in adolescent long-distance runners. Methods: Thirty-four adolescent runners were randomly assigned to a PFRT group (n = 17) or a control group (n = 17). Following a standardized running session, the PFRT group received bilateral PFRT. Assessments were performed on the dominant side at three time points: pre-training, post-training, and post-PFRT. DKCP was evaluated using the Bunkie Test for the posterior stabilization line (PSL) and posterior power line (PPL), Myoton measurements of the latissimus dorsi, erector spinae, hamstrings, and gastrocnemius, the Sit-and-Reach Test for hamstring/lumbar flexibility, and the Modified Schober Test for lumbar mobility. Results: No significant group × time interactions were observed for any outcome except lumbar mobility. PSL performance increased significantly following PFRT compared with post-training (p = 0.016), whereas PPL performance did not change. Lumbar mobility improved significantly over time (p < 0.05). Although latissimus dorsi stiffness and hamstring and gastrocnemius stiffness were lower in the PFRT group at baseline, no significant within-group changes were observed following PFRT. Conclusions: PFRT may acutely improve lumbar mobility as a recovery intervention in adolescent runners. Further research is needed to clarify its short- and long-term effects within structured recovery programs during adolescence. Full article

Amid rapid advancements in artificial intelligence, the detection of abnormal human behaviors in complex traffic environments has garnered significant attention. However, detection errors frequently occur due to interference from complex backgrounds, small targets, and other factors. Therefore, this paper proposes a research methodology that integrates the anomaly detection YOLO-SGCF algorithm with the tracking BoT-SORT-ReID algorithm. The detection module uses YOLOv8 as the baseline model, incorporating Swin Transformer to enhance global feature modeling capabilities in complex scenes. CBAM and CA attention are embedded into the Neck and backbone, respectively: CBAM enables dual-dimensional channel-spatial weighting, while CA precisely captures object location features by encoding coordinate information. The Neck layer incorporates GSConv convolutional modules to reduce computational load while expanding feature receptive fields. The loss function is replaced with Focal-EIoU to address sample imbalance issues and precisely optimize bounding box regression. For tracking, to enhance long-term tracking stability, ReID feature distances are incorporated during the BoT-SORT data association phase. This integrates behavioral category information from YOLO-SGCF, enabling the identification and tracking of abnormal pedestrian behaviors in complex environments. Evaluations on our self-built dataset (covering four abnormal behaviors: Climb, Fall, Fight, Phone) show mAP@50%, precision, and recall reaching 92.2%, 90.75%, and 86.57% respectively—improvements of 3.4%, 4.4%, and 6% over the original model—while maintaining an inference speed of 328.49 FPS. Additionally, generalization testing on the UCSD Ped1 dataset (covering six abnormal behaviors: Biker, Skater, Car, Wheelchair, Lawn, Runner) yielded an mAP score of 92.7%, representing a 1.5% improvement over the original model and outperforming existing mainstream models. Furthermore, the tracking algorithm achieved an MOTA of 90.8% and an MOTP of 92.6%, with a 47.6% reduction in IDS, demonstrating superior tracking performance compared to existing mainstream algorithms. Full article

Background: This study aimed to provide reference values for estimating training intensities in long-distance runners based on progressive incremental tests, considering differences related to sex and performance level. Methods: A total of 1411 endurance-trained runners (819 men and 592 women) completed a standardized treadmill protocol with gas exchange analysis to determine ventilatory thresholds and peak oxygen consumption (VO_2peak). Heart rate (HR) and running speed at each threshold were expressed relative to their peak values. Results: HR at second ventilatory threshold (VT2) occurred at 93.5 ± 2.5% of HR peak, and HR at first ventilatory threshold at 85.1 ± 4.6%. The relative running speeds at VT2 and VT1 corresponded to 87.6 ± 3.9% and 73.9 ± 5.5% of the speed at VO_2peak, respectively. In men, beginners exhibited higher relative HR and VO₂ values at the ventilatory thresholds than elite runners. In contrast, women displayed higher and more stable relative values across performance levels. Conclusions: These findings establish precise, evidence-based reference ranges derived from a large cohort of runners and highlight the need to consider sex and performance level when estimating exercise intensities. Individualized physiological assessment remains essential for accurate training prescription and performance optimization. Full article

Objective: The purpose of this study was to explore the effects of an acute dose of cannabidiol (CBD) on physical and mental health, as well as running performance in a group of runners. Methods: This study used a randomized, cross-over design where individuals were given CBD (CBD-T) or placebo (PLA-T) capsules on two separate occasions. During their first visit, the subjects consumed 300 mg of either placebo or CBD capsules and were then instructed to sit quietly for 2 h. Then, participants filled out a State Trait Anxiety Inventory (STAI) and completed measures of resting systolic (SBP) and diastolic blood pressure (DBP), heart rate (HR), blood lactate (BL), and heart rate variability (HRV). Next, participants completed a 2-mile treadmill run as fast as possible. During each run, HR, rating of perceived exertion (RPE), and BL were measured during and after the run. Participants completed a gastrointestinal (GI) symptom questionnaire immediately after the 2-mile time trial. Results: Participants (N = 12; 4 males, 8 females) averaged 25.5 years ± 3.34 years of age. Mean CBD-T reported increased feelings of calm (21% p = 0.04) and relaxed (22%, p = 0.02) when compared to PLA-T. There were no differences in the severity of GI symptoms, SBP, DBP, or HRV between the treatments. The CBD-T experienced an 8% reduction in average RPE at mile 1 of the run compared with PLA-T (p = 0.05). There was no significant difference in run performance time. Conclusions: An acute dose of CBD (300 mg) taken 2 h before a 2-mile run may potentially benefit runners in shorter distance competitions by increasing calm and relaxed feelings and reducing perceived effort at the halfway point without impairing performance or increasing gastrointestinal upset. Full article

The aim of this study was to develop functional food with high antioxidant potential and to examine its effect on oxidative–antioxidant markers in the blood of athletes in an intervention study. The study population consisted of 40 athletes—long-distance runners who were divided into a study group (SG) and a control group (CG). Before and after the dietary intervention in the blood, the following were determined: total antioxidant status (TAS), antioxidant enzymes (superoxide dismutase—SOD, glutathione peroxidase—GPx, catalase—CAT) and total oxidative stress (TOS). Additionally, the oxidative stress index (OSI) was calculated. It was shown that in the SG after the dietary intervention, the TOS (p < 0.001) and OSI (p = 0.029) decreased, while the TAS increased (p < 0.001). However, no significant differences were found in the level of antioxidant enzymes in the SG. In the CG, dietary intervention did not affect the level of the assessed parameters. This study demonstrated that functional food in the form of a bar with high antioxidant potential, rich in polyphenols, dietary fiber, vitamin E, selenium, and magnesium, can support the body’s endogenous antioxidant system and restore oxidative–antioxidant homeostasis in athletes. However, further studies are needed, including a larger group of athletes, longer intervention times, and different periods of the annual training cycle. Full article

Background: Ultramarathon running represents an extreme physiological and metabolic challenge. Despite its growing popularity among recreational and competitive runners, evidence-based guidance for nutrition, energy balance, and recovery remains limited. Understanding metabolic response and hormonal regulation during such events is crucial for improving athletes’ health and performance. Methods: This prospective observational study examined participants of the 2024 TorTour de Ruhr^® (100 km, 160.9 km, and 230 km). Pre- and post-race assessments included body composition, energy intake and expenditure, metabolic and hormonal biomarkers (leptin, ghrelin, insulin, glucagon, irisin, creatine kinase muscle type (CKM), lactate dehydrogenase (LDH)), and continuous glucose monitoring (CGM). Blood and saliva samples, bioimpedance analysis, and validated symptom questionnaires (General Assessment of Side Effects (GASE)) were used. Results: Of the 43 ultra runners (16 women, 27 men), 39 finished the race: 19 participants of the 100 km group, 8 of the 160.9 km group, and 16 of the 230 km group. Mean energy deficit was 6797 kcal (range: 417–18,364 kcal) with carbohydrate-dominant fueling (79%). Significant reductions in leptin and insulin and increases in ghrelin, glucagon, CKM, and LDH were observed, indicating disrupted energy homeostasis and muscle damage. The 230 km subgroup showed the greatest changes. Gastrointestinal and musculoskeletal symptoms increased post-race, aligning with biomarker patterns. Conclusions: Ultramarathon participation induces profound disturbances in metabolic and structural integrity, regardless of race distance. These findings underline the importance of developing individualized nutritional and recovery strategies and highlight the need for future research to investigate how energy deficit and macronutrient composition interact to influence metabolic strain and post-race recovery. Full article

Background: Blood lactate concentration and muscle oxygen saturation (SmO₂) are widely used indicators of endurance performance, reflecting the balance between oxygen delivery and utilization during exercise. To date, no studies have examined how the rs1049434 polymorphism of the SLC16A1 gene (the polymorphism) influences SmO₂ referenced to blood lactate thresholds in long-distance (LD) runners. This pilot study aimed to investigate the association between SmO₂ referenced to blood lactate concentration during maximal and submaximal exercise and the polymorphism in male collegiate LD runners. Methods: Overall, 15 Japanese male collegiate LD runners participated. Physiological parameters, including respiratory gas data, were measured during a graded incremental exercise test using the breath-by-breath method. SmO₂ was recorded from the right vastus lateralis muscle. Participants were genotyped for rs1049434, and comparisons were made between the AA genotype and T-allele carriers (AT + TT genotype). Results: Runners with the AA genotype exhibited significantly higher %$\stackrel{·}{\mathrm{V}}$O_2max at the lactate threshold (p = 0.044) and at the onset of blood lactate accumulation (OBLA) than T-allele carriers (p = 0.023). For SmO₂ measurements, those with the AA genotype displayed shorter t1/2_{reoxygenation} (p = 0.043) and higher SmO_2max (p = 0.045). Furthermore, SmO₂-OBLA was significantly higher in the AA genotype than in T-allele carriers (p = 0.029). Conclusions: These findings suggest that runners with the AA genotype may have greater oxygen utilization efficiency and potentially improved muscle oxygen delivery during high-intensity exercise. However, these are preliminary results, and further studies with larger and more diverse cohorts are needed to confirm these observations. Full article

This study aims to investigate the characteristics of load changes in the hip, knee, and ankle joints of the dominant and non-dominant lower limbs of young male runners after long-distance running. Using the OpenSim public dataset (containing bilateral biomechanical data before and after long-distance running from 20 young male runners), personalized musculoskeletal models were established. Contact forces in three directions at lower limb joints during the running stance phase were calculated. Statistical analysis employed one-dimensional statistical parameter mapping (SPM1d) and two-factor repeated measures ANOVA (time × side). Results revealed significant time × side interaction effects (p < 0.05) for contact forces in the medial–lateral direction at the hip, the anterior–posterior direction at the knee, and all three directions at the ankle. Simple effects analysis showed that post-run medial–lateral hip forces significantly increased during the push-off phase, while anterior–posterior ankle forces significantly increased during the mid-to-late stance phase on both sides (d = 0.718–1.002). For the superior–inferior direction at the hip and knee, only main effects of time or side were present. Post-run joint contact forces significantly increased, with the dominant side consistently exceeding the non-dominant side across multiple stance and push-off phases (d = 0.58–1.6), indicating stable side-to-side differences. These findings indicate that long-distance running not only increases multi-joint loading in the lower limbs but also exacerbates asymmetry between the dominant and non-dominant sides during the initial stance and push-off phases. This redistribution of load, coupled with bilateral control imbalance, may further elevate the risk of injury. Full article