Search Results (220)

In this study, three-year-old seed-derived seedlings of Horsfieldia hainanensis Merr. were subjected to 0%, 25%, 50%, and 75% shade treatments in a nursery shade-net experiment from October 2025 to June 2026. Each treatment included three replicates, with three seedlings per replicate. The results showed that the light environment significantly affected growth. Seedlings under 0% shade showed severe wilting and mortality; therefore, this treatment was treated as a mortality outcome and excluded from subsequent statistical comparisons, which were conducted among the 25%, 50%, and 75% shade treatments. Within this range, plant height, ground diameter, crown width, leaf traits, and above- and belowground biomass increased with shade level, with the highest values observed under 75% shade. The 75% shade treatment was associated with higher maximum net photosynthetic rate (Pmax), apparent quantum yield (AQY), initial carboxylation efficiency (α), and CO₂-saturated net photosynthetic rate (Amax), together with lower light compensation point (LCP) and carbon dioxide compensation point (CDCP), indicating improved light- and CO₂-response performance within the tested shade range. Leaf thickness, epidermal thickness, and palisade and spongy parenchyma thicknesses increased with shade level, whereas variation in stomatal traits was mainly reflected in stomatal density. Chlorophyll a, chlorophyll b, total chlorophyll, and carotenoids increased under stronger shading, showing clear variation in pigment accumulation along the shade gradient. Growth, biomass, photosynthetic capacity, leaf anatomical traits, and pigment contents were positively correlated, whereas the light saturation point (LSP), LCP, carbon dioxide saturation point (CDSP), and CDCP were generally negatively associated with these traits. Among the surviving treatments tested, the 75% shade treatment produced the best seedling performance and may be suitable for nursery cultivation, although further validation at different sites and in different seasons is needed. These findings provide practical guidance for artificial propagation, seedling production, plantation establishment, and light-environment management of this species. Full article

This review provides a comparative critical synthesis of biochar and enhanced rock weathering (ERW), identifies key trends and gaps in soil carbon research, and outlines pathways for improving carbon sequestration and monitoring in soil systems. From a global perspective, materials and agricultural studies were read to examine the properties of these amendments and their effects in cropland and forest soils. The main research question guiding this literature review was as follows: What are common trends in published biochar and ERW studies? Major themes were derived from the stated question and structure the Discussion. The Web of Science provided access to relevant literature for both biochar and ERW, and a total of 38 articles (biochar: 17; ERW: 21) were read and covered in this paper. The findings conveyed the growing number of Chinese studies on these amendments to resolve climate-related soil quality affecting crop yields and potential for carbon sequestration, namely carbon dioxide removal or CDR—which sequesters CO₂ that is already in the atmosphere. Studies commonly used application rates of <5% for biochar and 5 or 50 t/ha for ERW, with (wood) biochar commonly processed at temperatures of 500–550 °C. Finer powders were known to be more effective due to their increased surface area, although there were emissions trade-offs to consider for climate change mitigation. There were options for using glacial rock flour (GRF) as an alternative. For ERW, the type of minerals matters, with basaltic amendments being most investigated and minerals like zeolite, for example, having quick responses and potential to filter out heavy metals. Depth of analysis was an issue in the studies, especially affecting ERW work—which needs to adopt greater depths (>60 cm) and both soil organic carbon (SOC) and soil inorganic carbon (SIC) or total carbon need address, particularly for ERW since studies only provided selective coverage. Biochar studies tended to focus more on crop yields and were not as concerned as ERW studies in CDR. Many studies agreed that these are promising products that need to be economically compared before being applied at a large scale. More field studies are needed to test biochar, while limitations imposed by soil pH (acidification affecting dissolution and nutrient availability) and climate need consideration for ERW—especially since it works best in warm, humid climates. The application rate and duration are important variables to also consider for ERW, and both SOC and SIC dynamics are subsystem components requiring consideration. Ultimately, studies call for field trials executed in the long term at greater depth and in different climates and representing different soil types. Full article

This study investigated the rheological, structural, barrier, mechanical, optical, and thermal properties of composite edible films based on citrus pectin and vegetable purées derived from broccoli, cauliflower, pumpkin, carrot, and their blends. Film-forming formulations were characterized in terms of rheological behavior, thickness, microstructure, gas and water vapor permeability, optical and mechanical properties, water contact angle, and thermal stability. The incorporation of vegetable purées significantly modified the properties of the pectin-based matrices. All film-forming solutions exhibited non-Newtonian shear-thinning behavior, with flow behavior index values below unity. The addition of vegetable purées markedly increased viscosity and flow resistance, indicating the formation of more structured systems with stronger intermolecular interactions. Apparent viscosity increased from 0.19 Pa·s in the control sample to 1.41 Pa·s and 1.19 Pa·s in the broccoli (B) and broccoli–cauliflower (B-CF) formulations, respectively, while the consistency coefficient increased from 0.29 to 51.38 Pa·sⁿ. Composite films exhibited lower water contents (0.090–0.114 gH₂O·g_d.m.⁻¹) than the control film (0.179 gH₂O·g_d.m.⁻¹) and were thicker (170–282 μm) than the pure pectin film (125 μm). Barrier analysis revealed a reduction in water vapor permeability from 18.99·10⁻¹⁰ to 10.74–14.69·10⁻¹⁰ g·m⁻¹·s⁻¹·Pa⁻¹ and a decrease in carbon dioxide permeability from 21.95 to 10.47–17.91 GRT. The carrot-containing film exhibited the highest tensile strength (62.17 MPa), whereas the pumpkin–carrot film demonstrated the most favorable combination of barrier and mechanical properties, including the lowest oxygen permeability (6.95 GRT), low water vapor permeability (10.74·10⁻¹⁰ g·m⁻¹·s⁻¹·Pa⁻¹), and high tensile strength (51.02 MPa). Thermogravimetric analysis revealed similar three-stage degradation profiles for all samples, while vegetable incorporation modified moisture release and increased residual mass. The obtained results confirmed the research hypothesis that vegetable-processing by-products can serve as valuable structure-forming components of pectin-based composite films and that interactions between vegetable-derived biopolymers and citrus pectin improve the mechanical, barrier, and functional properties of the resulting materials. Among the tested formulations, the pumpkin–carrot film demonstrated the greatest potential for further development as a biodegradable packaging material. The utilization of vegetable by-products in pectin-based films represents a sustainable approach supporting circular economy principles and the development of environmentally friendly packaging systems. Full article

The engineering, resource, and financial constraints in space and spacecraft so far have not allowed the incorporation of biological components into a closed-loop bioregenerative life support system (BLSS), despite decades of research. The expected increase in deep-space exploration and planetary bases with limited access to Earth-based resources necessitates the development of self-sustaining hybrid BLSS technology. The created physicochemical systems, together with photosynthetic organisms and bacteria, aim to revitalize the air, produce food, and recycle nutrients and water in mutually beneficial mini-ecosystems. While plants are best in the function of food production and bacteria in waste recycling, the incorporation of microalgae would add immense benefits in optimizing the life support system (LSS) and increasing the degree of closure. Microalgal photobioreactors (PBRs) could perform wastewater treatment (WWT), removing the nitrogen (N) and phosphorus (P) in the human-derived wastewater (WW), and couple it with converting carbon dioxide (CO₂) from the cabin to oxygen (O₂) and food production. As microalgal WWT on Earth is an emerging field with engineering hurdles, power, mass, volume, microgravity fluid dynamics, and other constraints have also prevented their operations in space. However, in space vehicles, there is no need for large upscaling of a laboratory prototype system, and the WW effluent is easier to predict, facilitating microalgal extraplanetary use in comparison to Earth treatment plants. These factors, combined with the qualities of microalgae such as surface-to-volume efficiency, fast growth rate, high yield, and tolerability to WW, etc., have led to many preliminary testbeds, prototypes, and ground demonstrations from space agencies, space centers, and academia, which show promising results. Microalgal participation in space WWT is beyond current operational practice; however, PBRs are on the space agenda, and the scientific community is elaborating the technologies that would allow their successful implementation. Full article

Introduction: Patients with psoriasis, a non-contagious, chronic, systemic inflammatory skin disease, often suffer from carbohydrate metabolism disorders, which can exacerbate systemic inflammation. Methods: This randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial (RCT) evaluated the effects of chicory-derived inulin-type fructans (ITFs) on body composition, energy expenditure, and carbohydrate metabolism in patients with mild psoriasis (PS), using a healthy control (n = 32) group as a baseline reference. PS participants (n = 56) were randomized to receive 15 g/day of ITFs (n = 29) or a placebo (n = 27) for 8 weeks. Body composition using bioelectrical impedance analysis (BIA), carbohydrate metabolism (fasting glucose, insulin, glycated hemoglobin, Oral Glucose Tolerance Test (OGTT)) and resting energy expenditure (resting metabolic rate (RMR), oxygen consumption (VO₂), carbon dioxide production (VCO₂)) via indirect calorimetry were determined. Results: At baseline, patients with PS had significantly (p < 0.01) higher body mass index and visceral fat levels, and abnormal levels of selected parameters of carbohydrate metabolism, compared with healthy controls. Following the intervention, the ITFs group maintained stable fasting glucose levels, while the placebo group showed an undesirable increase (Δ_glucose = +5.7 mg/dL; p < 0.01). The energy expenditure analysis revealed a significant treatment effect on RMR and VO₂ parameters (p < 0.01), with a decrease in the placebo group (p < 0.01) while remaining stable in the prebiotic group. There was no significant effect of the intervention on body composition and anthropometric parameters. Conclusions: Patients with PS exhibit a higher metabolic risk than healthy controls. Although no significant changes were observed within the intervention groups, the deterioration of metabolic indices in the placebo group may indicate an unfavorable effect of the maltodextrin. Consequently, the stabilization of parameters in the prebiotic group should be interpreted with great caution. This RCT was registered at ClinicalTrials.gov (NCT05971992). Full article

Agricultural residues such as sugarcane bagasse have been explored as renewable precursors for activated carbon production. However, the environmental performance of activated carbon can be strongly influenced by energy-intensive thermal processing, chemical activation, and the functional unit used for interpretation. While several life cycle assessment studies have been reported for sugarcane bagasse-derived activated carbon, many rely on secondary data or focus primarily on production-stage impacts without incorporating adsorption performance. This study evaluates the environmental performance of laboratory-scale sugarcane bagasse-derived activated carbon produced using a process-based life cycle assessment under laboratory-scale conditions. The system boundary includes feedstock preparation, thermal conversion (pyrolysis), chemical activation, and post-treatment steps such as washing and neutralization. Under the product-based functional unit, climate change impacts were 5.11 and 4.89 kg carbon dioxide equivalent per kg activated carbon for potassium hydroxide and sodium hydroxide activation, respectively, while net energy demand was 115 and 110 MJ per kg activated carbon. Contribution analysis identified pyrolysis electricity as the dominant hotspot for climate change and energy demand, whereas chemical activation influenced toxicity- and resource-related categories. When adsorption performance was considered, potassium hydroxide activation showed improved results for selected indicators because of its higher methylene blue adsorption capacity; however, resource-related burdens remained higher than sodium hydroxide activation. Overall, the study demonstrates that laboratory-scale activated carbon assessments require cautious interpretation and that integrating adsorption performance with life cycle metrics provides a more decision-relevant basis for comparing biomass-derived adsorbents. Full article

Carbon dioxide (CO₂) enrichment using fuel combustion is widely applied in greenhouse production. However, its implications for air quality and occupational safety under real operating conditions remain insufficiently characterized. This study evaluates a propane-based CO₂ enrichment system in an advanced greenhouse. The analysis integrates CO₂ dynamics, combustion-derived pollutants, and occupational exposure. High-resolution monitoring at 5 min intervals was conducted in an enriched module and a control module over a five-month period. Two operational modes were assessed: continuous and diurnal-only enrichment. The system maintained CO₂ concentrations within agronomic targets. Mean values reached 1200 ppm and 940 ppm for continuous and diurnal operation, respectively. However, significant CO₂ losses were observed due to ventilation. The maximum enrichment efficiency, expressed as the Combustion Efficiency Index (CEI), was 2.67 × 10⁻³. Combustion-related pollutants (CO, NO, NO₂, SO₂, and O₃) showed transient peaks during burner activation. However, concentrations remained below occupational exposure limits when evaluated using time-weighted averages. The incomplete combustion ratio (ICR) remained stable at approximately 1.9 × 10⁻³. This indicates predominantly complete combustion. These results provide field-based evidence on the performance and safety of propane-based CO₂ enrichment systems. They also highlight the importance of continuous monitoring and improved CO₂ retention strategies in semi-confined greenhouse environments. Full article

Poly(lactic acid) (PLA) devices can be functionalized with plant-derived bioactives to introduce antioxidant activity while maintaining manufacturability and cytocompatibility. Here, a polyphenol-rich mango leaf extract (MLE) was obtained by enhanced solvent extraction and incorporated into PLA using supercritical carbon dioxide-assisted impregnation. Two manufacturing sequences were compared: impregnation after three-dimensional (3D) printing of discs and impregnation of filaments prior to printing. Extract yield and radical scavenging capacity were quantified, and impregnation efficiency was assessed as a function of pressure and temperature. Biological performance was evaluated using adipose tissue-derived endothelial colony-forming cells (ECFCs) and adipose tissue-derived mesenchymal stromal cells (MSCs), cultured separately and in co-culture on functionalized substrates. Impregnation after printing provided higher and more reproducible loading while preserving disc geometry, whereas impregnation before printing promoted swelling and printing-associated deformation that compromised structural fidelity. Cell-based analyses supported improved adhesion, spatial distribution, and proliferative status on discs produced by impregnation after printing under low-temperature and high-pressure conditions, without evidence of selective loss of either population in co-culture by flow cytometry. These results support post-print supercritical impregnation as a robust route to generate antioxidant, cell-supportive PLA scaffolds from agricultural by-products with potential relevance for vascular-oriented biomedical applications. Full article

Sulfur fumigation, as a highly effective method for preservation and appearance enhancement, has been widely applied in fruits, vegetables, and food products. However, excessive sulfur fumigation can pose safety risks. Currently, there is limited research on the bound sulfites produced by sulfur fumigation, and no consensus has been reached regarding their structure and toxicity. Using ultra-performance liquid chromatography–quadrupole time-of-flight tandem mass spectrometry (UPLC-Q-TOF-MS/MS), a total of 34 compounds were identified in 12 lily bulb samples subjected to different sulfur fumigation durations. These derivatives were all hypothesized to form via nucleophilic addition to carbon–carbon double bonds. Based on multivariate statistical analysis, 9 characteristic markers were established to rapidly differentiate between non-fumigated (NF) and sulfur-fumigated (SF) samples. The practicality of this strategy was validated using 18 commercial batches. Molecular docking simulations predicted that the modifications might enhance toxicity toward liver injury-related targets, both by altering the spatial conformation of the compounds and because the sulfonic acid group itself serves as an ideal hydrogen-bond acceptor. Overall, mild fumigation led to a gradual accumulation of free sulfur dioxide in lily bulbs, increased the total content of phenolic components and antioxidant capacity, and did not generate excessive bound sulfur dioxide. However, with further extension of fumigation time, the content of sulfur-containing derivatives rose rapidly, accompanied by a noticeable decline in antioxidant activity. This study elucidates the sulfur-driven chemical transformation mechanisms in lily bulbs and establishes a targeted methodology for the quality control and safety assessment of processed herbal products. Full article

To broaden the application of biomethanation for energy storage and renewable integration, this study investigates the performance of a trickle-bed reactor (TBR) for hydrogen (H₂) utilisation in biogas upgrading, using both pure Carbon dioxide (CO₂) and biogas-derived CO₂ as substrates for methane (CH₄) production. Renewable sources such as wind and solar are inherently variable, increasing the need for scalable storage solutions. Converting surplus electricity into H₂ and CH₄ via biological methanation offers an efficient and safer alternative to direct H₂ storage. By reducing CO₂ produced by biogas plants, methanogenic archaea produce CH₄, enabling H₂ valorisation and enhanced biogas yields. This study demonstrates that TBR technology can achieve CH₄ formation rates up to 15 L-CH₄/L-reactor/day under optimised conditions. Siporax carrier material supported dense biofilm formation and effective gas–liquid mass transfer, facilitating high conversion efficiency. The system showed operational robustness, with rapid recovery after prolonged idle periods and stable production rates of 10–12 L-CH₄/L/day. Wastewater was used as a realistic medium to assess reactor performance under complex, variable conditions. Reactor design focused primarily on enhancing gas–liquid mass transfer and supporting sustained microbial activity through adequate nutrient supply, ensuring sufficient buffer capacity to maintain pH stability. These results demonstrate the potential of TBR-based systems for high-rate, stable biomethanation and highlight their applicability in future energy infrastructures for integrating H₂ through decentralised biogas upgrading. Full article

Crop residue open burning is a major source of atmospheric pollutants that degrade regional air quality, enhance climate forcing, and threaten public health through emissions of particulate matter, greenhouse gases, and toxic species. In southern China, satellite-based emission estimates are often underestimated because frequent cloud cover and limited spatiotemporal resolution hinder the detection of agricultural fires. In this study, crop residue open burning emissions in Guangxi province from 2017 to 2023 were quantified using a statistical approach. The open burning proportion (OBP) was updated on an annual basis using the Visible Infrared Imaging Radiometer Suite (VIIRS) 375 m active fire product (VNP14IMG), and recently reported emission factors (EF_S) were adopted to enhance estimation accuracy. Annual emissions of pollutants were then spatially distributed to 0.05° × 0.05° grid cells based on satellite-detected fire counts and land cover information. The results indicated the total emissions of black carbon (BC), organic carbon (OC), sulfur dioxide (SO₂), nitric oxide (NO_X), carbon monoxide (CO), carbon dioxide (CO₂), fine particles (PM_2.5), coarse particles (PM₁₀), ammonia (NH₃), methane (CH₄) and non-methane volatile organic compound (NMVOC) in Guangxi province during 2017–2023 were 58.90, 230.48, 37.90, 213.95, 4234.41, 108,775.48, 583.09, 667.70, 46.36, 322.74 and 710.20 Gg, respectively. Sugarcane residue burning was identified as the dominant contributor, accounting for 41.26–64.38% of total emissions, followed by rice (20.66–43.06%), corn (5.11–17.25%), and cassava (4.33–6.45%). Emissions exhibited clear interannual variability, declining from 2017 to 2020 under strict control measures and increasing again from 2021 to 2023 as enforcement weakened. Incorporating annually updated VIIRS-derived OBP_S into the statistical inventory improves the temporal representation and reliability of multi-year emission estimates for agricultural burning. Full article

This study investigates the feasibility of treating acidic gases produced in oilfields using a novel method that combines cavitation-jet reactor (CJR) technology with electric arc discharge (EAD). The integration of these two approaches enhances the ionization process by converting neutral gas molecules into chemically reactive ion-radical and radical fragments. These highly reactive species eventually recombine, creating new chemical compounds and simpler molecules from incoming acid gas and water vapor. Theoretical validation and experimental demonstration have revealed possible mechanisms and pathways of low-temperature plasma-chemical processes resulting from the synergistic effects of cavitating-jet flow and arc discharge on the molecular degradation of neutral gaseous molecules, such as hydrogen sulfide and carbon dioxide in water vapor, which lead to the generation of new compounds. Research indicates that the most effective method for processing associated petroleum gas (APG) involves minimizing the sequential nature of chemical reactions in low-temperature non-equilibrium plasma environments, thus eliminating the need for costly and complex catalysts. Additionally, studies have shown that the cavitation-jet flow of a gas–vapor–liquid mixture, when combined with an electric arc discharge in the truncated region of the low-temperature plasma of CJR, results in the synthesis of hydrogen, two forms of S₈ (S₈^I and S₈^II), crystalline carbon, and its organic derivatives containing oxygen and nitrogen, specifically methanol, ethanol, acetone, and acetonitrile. The data obtained suggest that the generation of low-temperature plasma in the cavitation-jet chamber, induced by an electric discharge, is essential for the production of reaction products, such as hydrogen, sulfur, and oxygen- and nitrogen-containing derivatives of organic carbon, when water vapor and acid gas molecules traverse the reactor. Full article

The ability of Rhodotorula toruloides DSM 4444 to metabolize low-cost carbon sources such as fatty acids was comprehensively studied. This organism is shown, for the first time, to simultaneously accumulate microbial oils (biofuel precursors) and carotenoids from acetic acid obtained from CO₂ fermentation. This fatty acid is typically the single end product of acetogenic bioconversion of one-carbon gas pollutants (e.g., CO₂ and CO). In the first set of experiments, different aerobic fermentations were carried out in automated bioreactors, with acetic acid in one case and with glucose, a more conventional carbon source, as a control, in another bioreactor. R. toruloides consumed around 80 g/L substrate under both conditions. Maximum lipid content (27.2% g/g dry weight) was reached from 38 g/L glucose, while carotenoid content was higher with acetic acid (1.4 mg/g cell after 54.1 g/L acetic acid consumed), representing a 40% increase compared to glucose (1.0 mg/g cell after 64.2 g/L glucose consumed). Additionally, in the second set of assays, a fermented broth produced by Acetobacterium woodii from CO₂ fermentation, containing residual nutrients and metabolites, was tested. Despite its complex composition, R. toruloides grew and produced carotenoids (up to 0.141 mg/g), showing potential adaptability. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first report on a greenhouse gas-based biotechnological process as a promising sustainable alternative for the valorization of pollutants, e.g., gas emissions, their bioconversion to VFAs, such as acetic acid, and subsequent fermentation of the carboxylic acid into microbial oils, as a source of renewable energy, as well as carotenoids as a high-value nutraceutical product. Full article

The conversion of biogas into high-value chemicals for pharmaceutical, cosmetic, and nutraceutical markets offers an attractive alternative to conventional fossil-based production routes, enabling circular value chains with significant socio-economic impact. This study evaluated the valorization of biogas into osmolyte and carotenoid compounds with market prices ranging from 1000 to 7000 $·kg⁻¹. Specifically, an algal–methanotrophic co-culture operated under saline conditions, preventing external microbial contamination and stimulating osmolytes and carotenoids, was assessed for its capacity to simultaneously remove methane (CH₄) and carbon dioxide (CO₂), with efficiencies of 92 and 89%, respectively. while producing ectoine, hydroxyectoine, lutein, β-carotene, and astaxanthin. Shotgun metagenomic analyses identified the key microorganisms driving the process, predominantly alkaliphilic and halophilic green algae (Chlorella, Dunaliella) and cyanobacteria (Leptolyngbya), and halotolerant methanotrophs (Methylotuvimicrobium) and methylotrophs (Methylophaga). Metagenomics further revealed the presence of key metabolisms related to C1 utilization and biosynthetic genes associated with carotenoid and osmolyte production, confirming the metabolic potential of the consortium to convert biogas-derived carbon directly into high-value compounds. Overall, these results demonstrate the feasibility of an efficient, biologically driven bio-platform capable of transforming greenhouse gas-rich waste streams into economically relevant bioactive molecules, contributing to global priorities in sustainable biomass-to-biochemical innovation. Full article

Conventional production methods of aragonite production utilize chemical inducers to promote the evolution of the calcite crystalline phase to the aragonite phase of calcium carbonate. The chemical inducers used require a considerable amount of magnesium chloride (MgCl₂) to induce crystallization, which is a major operational cost. Application of such materials in large amounts can be a deterrent to achieving a sustainable and economically feasible end-product derived from carbon dioxide (CO₂) molecules. A number of previous research works focused mainly on optimizing the usage of MgCl₂ or introducing alternative chemical inducers for aragonite production. In this work, we are proposing the usage of natural seawater as it is a naturally available and abundant resource to induce the synthesis and continuous production of aragonite compounds. Due to inconsistent quality and salinity of the natural seawater sampled, harvested, and dried, Red Sea Salt is utilized, blended at 33 g/L throughout the laboratory experiments for better statistical control, and is referred to as blended or artificial seawater. A methodology of utilizing seawater, which has a considerable concentration of MgCl₂ compound, can be utilized as a sustainable, natural, and economically feasible natural inducer to synthesize aragonite has been developed by utilizing artificial seawater for laboratory proof of concept. The main effects identified for the optimization of aragonite synthesis are lime (CaO) feedstock concentration in seawater, reaction temperature, and reaction duration. The experiment results indicated that only by increasing temperature and reaction duration, or both, can the aragonite yield be increased. It is suggested that the range of operation to obtain > 80% aragonite purity has been identified with the reaction temperature at 90 °C, reaction duration of 10 min, and CaO concentration in seawater at 1 g/L. The quality of the aragonite synthesized via seawater is characterized using XRD, ICP, FESEM, and TGA, and compared with aragonite particles synthesized using MgCl₂ inducers. In comparison, seawater aragonite has lower residual alkalinity compared to both calcite and aragonite via MgCl₂ and has a mixture of predominantly needle-shaped crystalline structure and remnants of cubic-shaped particles, presumably calcite, suitable for application in food, beverages, and pharmaceuticals (calcium antacids, nutritional supplements, chewable, lozenges). Full article