Search Results (220)

Background/Objectives: Human breast milk is a biologically active fluid. It contains immune cells, stem cells, epithelial cells, and lactocytes. These components may support infant development and immune defense. While milk composition is known to vary with physiological and nutritional factors, the impact of the home environment remains poorly understood. The aim of this study was to examine how selected conditions affect the cellular composition of breast milk. Methods: We conducted a cross-sectional study involving 49 lactating mothers of healthy infants under 6 months of age. Breast milk samples were analyzed using flow cytometry. We measured proportions of immune cells (CD3⁺, CD4⁺, CD8⁺, CD19⁺, and CD16/56⁺), hematopoietic stem cells (CD34⁺), mesenchymal stem cells (CD105⁺, CD73⁺, and CD44⁺), and lactocytes (CD326⁺ CD73⁺ and CD326⁺ CD73⁻ phenotypes). Participants completed a questionnaire assessing number of children, co-sleeping, pet ownership, and number of household members. Results: Mothers with more than one child showed higher percentages of CD4⁺ (p = 0.047) and CD8⁺ (p = 0.031) T cells and fewer CD73⁺ lactocytes (p = 0.028). Co-sleeping was associated with lower levels of CD3⁺ T cells in milk (p = 0.021). Pet ownership correlated with a lower proportion of cytotoxic CD8⁺ cells (p = 0.048). The number of household members had no significant effect. Conclusions: Domestic factors such as number of children, co-sleeping, and pet exposure are associated with shifts in the immune and lactocyte cell composition of breast milk. These findings suggest that breast milk dynamically adapts to maternal and household-level immune stimuli. Full article

Milk powder is a key nutritional alternative to breastfeeding, but its thermal properties, which vary with temperature, can affect its quality and shelf life. However, there is little information about the physical and chemical properties of powdered milk in several countries. This dataset contains the result of an analysis of the aflatoxins, macroelement and microelement concentrations, oxidative stability, and fatty acid profile of infant formula milk powder. The concentrations of Al, As, Ba, Cd, Co, Cr, Cu, Fe, Mg, Mn, Mo, Ni, Pb, Se, V, and Zn in digested powdered milk samples were quantified through inductively coupled plasma optical emission spectrometry (ICP OES). Thermogravimetry (TG) and differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) were used to estimate the oxidative stability of infant formula milk powder, while the methyl esters of the fatty acids were analyzed by gas chromatography. Most milk samples showed significant concentrations of As (0.5583–1.3101 mg/kg) and Pb (0.2588–0.0847 mg/kg). The concentrations of aflatoxins G2 and B2 are below the limits established by Brazilian regulatory agencies. The thermal degradation behavior of the samples is not the same due to their fatty acid compositions. The data presented may be useful in identifying compounds present in infant milk powder used as a substitute for breast milk and understanding the mechanism of thermal stability and degradation, ensuring food safety for those who consume them. Full article

Background/Objectives: The establishment of early gut microbiota is crucial for host health. Lactoferrin (LF), which is present in breast milk, positively impacts gut microbiota composition. However, the effect of lactation LF on the establishment and composition of early gut microbiota in different disease models in adulthood remains unclear. Methods: Lactation-LF-deficient mice were established using systemically LF–knocked-out maternal mice. This study assessed the maturity of the gut microbiota in LF feeding-deficient mice in relation to age and changes in the gut microbiota in adult high-fat diet (HFD)-induced obesity, dextran sodium sulfate (DSS)-induced acute colitis, and chronic unpredictable mild stress (CUMS)-induced depression models. Results: Compared to LF intake during lactation, LF deficiency during lactation increased the abundance of potentially pathogenic bacteria in the gut, resulting in abnormal microbial maturation. LF intake during lactation aggravated gut microbiota dysbiosis induced via HFD, DSS, and CUMS in adulthood and may change the function of Enterorhabdus, GCA-900066575, Peptococcus, Tuzzerella, Akkermansia, and Desulfovibrio. Comparing the different models revealed that bacteria that were jointly upregulated via HFD and DSS exhibited increased levels of inflammation and oxidation. LF deficiency during lactation may weaken the association between an HFD and inflammatory bowel disease (IBD). The changing trends in many gut microbes caused by DSS and HFD were opposite to those that changed with age. Conclusions: Lactoferrin deficiency increases the abundance of potential pathogens and disrupts microbial maturation. This lack of LF exacerbates dysbiosis in models of obesity, colitis, and depression. Regulating the gut microbiota according to the rules of microbial succession during the maturation process of gut microbiota may improve gut microbiota dysbiosis in patients with obesity and IBD. Full article

This review explores current knowledge on the environmental, oxidative, and genomic effects of sucralose (E955), an artificial sweetener widely used in food products, including those for children, and known to cross both the placental barrier and into breast milk. Although initially considered safe, research conducted over the past two decades has presented conflicting evidence regarding its long-term impact, particularly on ecosystems and biological systems. Structurally similar to chlorinated compounds such as perfluoralkyl substances (PFAS), sucralose is highly persistent in the environment, which complicates its degradation and removal, especially from aquatic systems. Several studies have reported behavioral, metabolic, and even genomic alterations in aquatic organisms exposed to sucralose, raising concerns about its broader ecological safety. In addition, its presence has been linked to shifts in microbiota composition in both environmental and human contexts. Reports of sucralose-induced oxidative stress further highlight the need for caution in its continued use, particularly in sensitive formulations. Given its widespread presence and resistance to degradation, further investigation into the environmental and biological safety of sucralose is urgently needed. Full article

Background/Objectives: Preterm infants are at high risk of extrauterine growth restriction and suboptimal neurological development due to cumulative nutrient deficits. Standard fortification (SF) of human milk does not account for individual macronutrient variability, potentially leading to inadequate intake. Target fortification (TFO) adjusts supplementation based on the measured macronutrient content, aimed at providing macronutrient intake aligned with ESPGHAN (European Society for Paediatric Gastroenterology, Hepatology and Nutrition) recommendations and optimize growth and development. This study aims to evaluate the effects of TFO compared to SF on growth, body composition, and neurological outcomes at 18 months corrected age. Methods: In this double-blind, randomized controlled trial, preterm infants (<30 weeks gestation) received either SF or TFO for at least three weeks. Macronutrient levels in breast milk were analyzed three times per week, with modular adjustments in the TFO group. Growth parameters, body composition at 36 weeks postmenstrual age, and Bayley Scales of Infant and Toddler Development III (BSID-III) scores at 18 months corrected age were assessed (n = 69). Results: TFO significantly increased protein, fat, and carbohydrate intake compared to SF, leading to higher weight gain (2514 ± 289 g vs. 2283 ± 332 g, p < 0.01) and growth velocity (21.7 ± 2.3 g/kg/d vs. 19.2 ± 2.2 g/kg/d, p < 0.001). In infants whose mother’s milk had low protein levels, fat-free mass was significantly higher with TFO compared to SF. BSID-III scores were higher in the TFO group across cognitive, language, and motor domains, with significant improvements in expressive language scores in infants whose mother’s milk had high protein levels (p < 0.05). The number of preterm infants with a motor BSID-III score of ≤70 was significantly lower in the TFO group compared to the SF group (0 vs. 3, p < 0.05). Conclusions: TFO enhanced growth and body composition and may support better neurological outcomes in preterm infants. While most BSID-III differences were not statistically significant, the data suggest that TFO may reduce the risk of developmental delays. Larger, multicenter trials are needed to confirm these findings. Full article

Breast milk is vital for infant survival, protecting against infections and strengthening the immune system. In addition to nutrients, breast milk contains beneficial microorganisms, antimicrobial peptides and proteins (APPs), including lactoferrin and lysozyme, and peptides such as defensins and cathelicidins that destroy harmful bacteria and regulate the neonatal immune response. Breast milk also promotes the growth of beneficial gut bacteria (Bacteroidaceae and Bifidobacteriaceae) while reducing harmful pathogens, fostering a healthy gut microbiome, and supporting long-term infant health. Traditionally, research on antimicrobial proteins and milk microbiota has been conducted in isolation. However, at the molecular level, these components do not function independently; they interact synergistically, influencing immunomodulation, inflammation, and the composition of the gut microbiome. Therefore, this review aims to provide an overview of the discovery and identification of APPs in breast milk, the dynamic relationship between the breast milk microbiota, and the potentiation of artificial feeding with supplemented formulas when breastfeeding is impossible, benefits on newborn immune systems, and even the benefits to breast tissue. Full article

Background: The composition of breast milk is influenced by a variety of factors, including maternal anthropometric characteristics, dietary and lifestyle habits, and lactation and feeding parameters. Emerging evidence also suggests that an infant’s sex may play a role in shaping breast milk composition. Objective: This study aims to investigate the macronutrient composition of early breast milk up to 3 months postpartum, with a particular focus on potential differences related to the infant’s sex. Methods: A total of 102 breast milk samples were collected at four time points across three lactation stages, representing colostrum, transitional, and mature milk, from a cohort consisting of 51 consenting mothers of Mediterranean origin who met the inclusion criteria. The samples were analyzed using mid-infrared spectroscopy to determine their macronutrient composition. Results: Colostrum from mothers of male infants contained approximately 60% higher levels of nitrogenous compounds, crude protein, true protein, and non-protein nitrogen compared to colostrum from mothers of female infants. Transitional milk for female infants contained higher fat, total solids, and energy. No significant differences in macronutrient composition were observed in mature milk between the sexes. For both sexes, colostrum contained more nitrogenous compounds and fewer total solids than mature milk. Male colostrum had lower carbohydrate levels compared to the later stages of lactation, while female samples showed no significant changes. Strong positive correlations between fat and crude protein were found for both sexes during the transitional and mature milk stages. In male colostrum, all macronutrients were interrelated. Conclusions: The observed differences in the composition of colostrum and transitional breast milk for male and female neonates suggest potential sex-specific nutritional adaptations during early lactation. These findings may have implications for personalized infant nutrition strategies in cases where breast feeding is hampered, as well as for understanding early neonatal adaptations. Full article

Background: More and more women are following a vegan and vegetarian diet. For some, the use of a vegan diet during lactation is controversial. Purpose: The aim of the study was to comparatively analyze the concentration of selected hormones, micro- and macronutrients, vitamins, and the basic composition and antioxidant status of the milk of vegan women, compared to the milk of omnivorous women. Methods: The study included 17 breastfeeding vegan women and 27 omnivorous women. The basic composition of human milk was analyzed using the MIRIS HMATM analyzer (Uppsala, Sweden) The levels of hormones and vitamins were determined by the enzyme-linked immunosorbent method. In order to determine the antioxidant activity and micro- and macroelements, spectrophotometric methods were used. Results: The vegan group was characterized by a lower average age, lower BMI, and lower WHR index compared to the control group. The milk of vegan women showed significantly higher cortisol concentrations and lower iron, vitamin B6, and antioxidant status than the milk of omnivorous women. Conclusions: A vegan diet helps maintain a healthy body weight and is more popular among younger women, under 30 years of age. Higher levels of milk cortisol in vegan women may indicate a high level of anxiety and stress experienced by breastfeeding women, which may have negative consequences not only for breastfeeding mothers but also for the development of their children. Lack of appropriate supplementation in women who do not consume meat and animal products may cause a deficiency of micro- and macroelements in breast milk. Full article

Background: Medium- and long-chain triacylglycerols (MLCTs) and sn-2 palmitate constitute approximately 70~80% of total breast milk fat. The structured lipid MLCTs and sn-2 palmitate, mimicking human milk, have demonstrated improvement in lipid absorption and energy metabolism in vitro and in animal experiments. However, clinical trials on infant formula supplied with MLCTs and sn-2 palmitate have yet to be conducted. Objectives: This study was designed to evaluate the effects on growth and lipid absorption of a novel formula with structured lipid MLCTs and sn-2 palmitate on healthy infants born at term. Methods: Infants were enrolled at 30 d postpartum and assigned to three groups based on their feeding conditions: (1) a novel formula with MLCTs and sn-2 palmitate (Novel-F group, n = 65); (2) a control formula with vegetable oils and no structured lipids (Contr-F group, n = 46); or (3) breastfeeding (BF group, n = 66). Growth measurements (including weight, length, and head circumference), stool characteristics, and fecal lipid composition (both soap and non-soap fatty acids) were analyzed at both baseline (30 d postpartum) and endline visits (90 d postpartum). Results: The Novel-F group had significantly higher weight gains (2195 ± 595 g) during the intervention compared to the Contr-F group (1897 ± 483 g) but similar weight gains to the BF group (2081 ± 614 g), with the changes in Z_w/a following a similar pattern. Z_l/a increased in the Novel-F group (0.04, (95% CI: −0.21 to 0.28)) and decreased in both the Contr-F (−0.23 (95% CI: −0.52 to 0.06)) and BF groups (−0.20 (95% CI: −0.44 to 0.05)). The stools of infants in the Novel-F group had similar undigested triacylglycerols and total fatty acids compared to breastfed infants but had significantly lower levels than infants fed with the control formula at both baseline and endline visits. Conclusions: The novel infant formula with MLCTs and sn-2 palmitate is safe and well tolerated, and supports adequate weight gain and improves lipid absorption. Full article

Background: Breast milk confers essential passive immunity to infants, particularly during viral pandemics. This study investigates dynamic changes in SARS-CoV-2-specific antibodies and proteome in the breast milk of mothers infected with either the wild-type or Omicron variants, addressing gaps in longitudinal dynamics and conserved or variant-specific immune responses. Methods: A prospective cohort of 22 lactating mothers infected with Omicron variant (December 2022–January 2023) was analyzed alongside a published dataset of wild-type-infected mothers (January–May 2020). Breast milk samples were collected at eight time points (1, 4, 7, 14, 21, 28, 35, 42 days post-infection) from the Omicron cohort for ELISA quantification of SARS-CoV-2-specific IgA, IgG, and IgM. Proteomic analysis was conducted for both cohorts. Results: Macronutrient composition remained stable throughout the post-infection period. SARS-CoV-2-specific IgA and IgG demonstrated biphasic kinetics, rapidly rising by day 14 (IgA: 0.03 to 0.13 ng/mL; IgG: 0.91 to 37.00 ng/mL) and plateauing through day 42. In contrast, IgM levels remained unchanged. Proteomic profiling identified 135 proteins associated with IgA/IgG dynamics, including variant-specific and conserved proteins. Conclusions: Breast milk maintains nutritional integrity while mounting robust immune responses during SARS-CoV-2 infection. These findings underscore breastfeeding as a safe and protective practice during COVID-19. Full article

Background/Objectives: Endocannabinoids are endogenous bioactive lipids that promote neurodevelopment and positive energy balance. Increased levels of endocannabinoids are associated with obesity, but the effect of maternal obesity on breast milk endocannabinoids across lactation is mostly unknown. Methods: Women from Rio de Janeiro (Brazil) (n = 92) were followed from the third trimester of pregnancy to 119 days postpartum, and milk samples were analyzed in the postpartum days 2–8 (T1), 28–47 (T2), and 88–119 (T3). We assessed the endocannabinoids anandamide (AEA) and 2-arachidonoylglycerol (2-AG) by high-performance liquid chromatography–mass spectrometry, leptin and insulin by immunoassay, and macronutrients by colorimetric assays in milk samples. Results: Milk AEA concentration was higher in T2 compared with T1 or T3, while 2-AG levels were higher in T2 and T3 compared with T1. Milk endocannabinoids were directly correlated with pre-pregnancy body mass index (BMI), gestational weight gain (GWG), and milk triglycerides. Triglyceride and leptin levels were higher in mature milk (T2 and T3) of women with BMI > 25 or excessive GWG. Adjusted linear regression models showed a positive association between excessive GWG and milk 2-AG (β = 1629; 95% CI: 467–2792; p = 0.008). Conclusions: The endocannabinoid levels are higher in mature milk from women with obesity or excessive GWG, which may impact offspring development and metabolism. Full article

Background/Objectives: Breast milk is a complex fluid crucial for infant development, nutrition, and immunological and neurodevelopmental support. Recent findings suggest that factors regarding mental health, such as stress, anxiety, and postpartum depression (PPD), may influence the composition of breast milk. This review aims to synthesize current knowledge regarding the relationship between a mother’s mental state and the biochemical profile of human milk, focusing mainly on nutrients, hormones, immune factors, and microbiota. Methods: A systematic literature search was conducted in PubMed and the Web of Science using predefined keywords related to psychological factors and milk composition. Studies involving validated psychological assessment tools and only human subjects were included, in accordance with PRISMA guidelines. Results: Findings indicated that maternal stress and PPD are associated with alterations in breast milk composition. Elevated cortisol and changes in melatonin and prolactin levels have been observed. Immune components, such as secretory immunoglobulin A and transforming growth factor beta 2, exhibit variable responses depending on stress type and duration. Lower concentrations of docosahexaenoic acid and polyunsaturated fatty acid have been observed among mothers diagnosed with depression. Additionally, maternal psychological distress may influence infants’ gut microbiota composition, potentially affecting long-term health outcomes. Conclusions: The maternal psychological state plays an essential role in shaping the composition of human breast milk. Understanding these associations highlights the need for mental health support during the postpartum period to optimize infant development. Future research should focus on the molecular mechanisms underlying these changes and potential interventions to mitigate adverse effects. Full article

The aim of this study was to develop a novel functional ingredient—goat’s skim milk enriched with Agrocybe aegerita (V. Brig.) Vizzini mushroom extract (ME/M)—using Central Composite Design (CCD). The optimized ME/M ingredient was evaluated for its physico-chemical, techno-functional, biological, and antimicrobial properties. Physico-chemical properties were analyzed using Attenuated Total Reflectance Fourier Transform Infrared (ATR-FTIR) spectroscopy, Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM), and Dynamic Light Scattering (DLS). The ingredient exhibited a polymodal particle size distribution and contained glucans, along with a newly formed polypeptide resulting from the selective cleavage of goat milk proteins. A 0.1% ME/M solution demonstrated good emulsifying and foaming properties. Additionally, ME/M showed strong antiproliferative effects on human cancer cell lines, particularly Caco-2 (colorectal) and MCF7 (breast) cancer cells. The ingredient also promoted HaCaT cell growth without cytotoxic effects, suggesting its safety and potential wound-healing properties. Furthermore, the addition of ME/M to HaCaT cells inoculated with Staphylococcus aureus resulted in reduced IL-6 levels compared to the control (without ME/M), indicating a dose-dependent anti-inflammatory effect. The optimized ME/M ingredient also exhibited antibacterial, antifungal, anticandidal, and antibiofilm activity in one-fourth of MIC. These findings suggest that the formulated ME/M ingredient has strong potential for use in the development of functional foods offering both desirable techno-functional properties and bioactive benefits. Full article

COVID-19, caused by SARS-CoV-2, has become a global public health threat. Although no replication-competent virus has been found in breast milk samples, breastfeeding practices during the pandemic were impacted. It is well known that breast milk is adapted to meet the needs of infants, providing the appropriate amounts of nutrients and various bioactive compounds that contribute to the maturation of the immune system and antioxidant protection, safeguarding infants against diseases. While its composition is variable, breast milk contains immune cells, antibodies, and cytokines, which have anti-inflammatory, pro-inflammatory, antiviral, and antibacterial properties that strengthen infant immunity. Since COVID-19 vaccines have not yet been approved for infants under six months of age, newborns rely on the passive transfer of antibodies via the placenta and breast milk to protect them against severe SARS-CoV-2 infection. Several studies that analyzed breast milk samples in the context of COVID-19 have demonstrated that a strong antibody response is induced following maternal infection with SARS-CoV-2. Therefore, this review aims to provide a comprehensive overview of the impact of maternal exposure to SARS-CoV-2 through natural infection and/or vaccination on the immunological composition of breast milk based on the studies conducted on this topic. Full article

Background: Enteric and diarrheal diseases pose a significant threat to infant health, highlighting the importance of immune defenses in early life, especially maternal protection, in establishing a robust gastrointestinal environment. Surfactin, a bioactive peptide from Bacillus subtilis, has immunomodulatory properties, yet its influence on offspring via maternal gut interference is not fully understood. This study examines the effects of maternal surfactin consumption on breast milk’s immunological properties and its consequent effects on neonatal intestinal health. Methods: Twenty-eight gravid mice were randomly categorized into two cohorts and were given surfactin or not in drinking water from one week after conception to 21 days postpartum. Cross-fostering experiments were conducted within 12 h after birth. Pups from the surfactin-supplemented dams were fostered and nursed by the control dams, while the pups from the control dams were nursed by the surfactin-supplemented dams. Results: The findings show that the pups from the surfactin-supplemented dams had increased body weight, improved intestinal morphology with longer villus and deeper crypts, the upregulation of genes related to mucins and antimicrobial peptides, and an increase in IgA⁺ and CD3⁺ T cells within the intestinal mucosa. Further, the cross-fostering experiments suggested that the pups nursed by the surfactin-supplemented dams gained more weight, had less intestinal damage, less inflammation, and lower oxidative stress levels induced by Salmonella typhimurium, indicating the immunological benefits of surfactin conveyed through breast milk. Additionally, the expression of pro-inflammatory factors, including nitric oxide, TNF-α, IL-1β, IL-6, MCP-1, and ROS, induced by LPS in the macrophages was significantly inhibited with milk from the surfactin-supplemented dam (MSD) treatment. Interestingly, the MSD treatment induced a shift in macrophage polarization from pro-inflammatory (M1-like) to anti-inflammatory (M2-like), evidenced by the decreased expression of IL-12p40 and iNOS and the increased expression of CD206, TGF-β, and Arg-1. In terms of mechanism, surfactin improved the contents of the anti-inflammatory factors IL-4, IL-10, and TGF-β in the breast milk. Conclusions: This research contributes to understanding how maternal interference can modulate breast milk composition, influence infant gastrointestinal development and immunity, and provide nutritional strategy insights. Full article