Search Results (459)

CD4⁺ T lymphocytes are important regulators of immune homeostasis, and their dysregulation is closely linked to a wide range of diseases. For this reason, their reliable detection remains a major challenge. Despite the fact that current methods are analytically robust, they rely mainly on laboratory infrastructure, limiting their flexibility and wider applicability. The present review analyzes established and emerging approaches for CD4⁺ T-cell detection, with a focus on their practical limitations regarding portability, flexibility and applicability. To the best of our knowledge, for the first time, the authors are examining the possibility of exploring marine magnetotactic bacteria (MTBs) as active biological elements in immune cell detection due to their intrinsic magnetic properties, biological organization, and surface biofunctionalization potential. Rather than offering an immediate technological solution, the use of MTBs serves as a challenging biological framework that could provide more adaptable and sensitive detection strategies. At the same time, the limitations of this concept are acknowledged, emphasizing the need for further experimental validation, considering that this strategy, although promising, remains an exploratory concept. Full article

Chitosan-based interpenetrating networks (IPNs) have become highly attractive as advanced super-adsorbent materials due to their ability to combine a high density of functional adsorption sites with enhanced structural stability under physiological conditions. While chitosan offers intrinsic advantages such as biocompatibility, biodegradability, and chemical functionality, its adsorption efficiency, mechanical strength, and long-term stability may offer limited performance in complex biomedical environments. The formation of interpenetrating networks provides an effective strategy to overcome these limitations by interlacing chitosan with other polymer networks, resulting in a synergistic enhancement of physicochemical and adsorption properties. The formation of chitosan-based IPNs offers tunable control of network structure, porosity, swelling behaviour, and adsorption kinetics, which in turn results in enhanced retention and controlled interaction of drugs, biomolecules, toxins, and other therapeutic agents. Variations in polymer composition, crosslinking density, and network interactions further facilitate the controlled tailoring of adsorption properties for targeted biomedical applications. This review presents a comprehensive and critical assessment of recent progress in the fabrication, functionalization, and structure–property relationships of chitosan-based IPNs, with a main emphasis on their super-adsorbent behaviour. Furthermore, this review highlights key biomedical applications of IPNs, including controlled drug delivery, wound healing systems, tissue engineering scaffolds, detoxification platforms, and biosensing devices. Current issues in scalability, stability, and clinical translation are discussed, as well as future perspectives that highlight the potential of chitosan-based IPNs as high-performance, sustainable super-adsorbent materials for advanced biomedical technologies. Full article

Bacterial infections pose a persistent global threat to public health, driving the demand for rapid, sensitive, and specific detection technologies applicable to disease diagnosis, food safety, and environmental monitoring. Conventional methods like plate culture and polymerase chain reaction are often hampered by lengthy procedures, dependence on complex instrumentation, and requirements for specialized personnel. The emergence of nanozymes and nanomaterials with enzyme-like catalytic activities has introduced a paradigm shift in biosensing, offering superior stability, cost-effectiveness, and tunable functionality compared to their natural counterparts. This review provides a comprehensive and systematic analysis of the latest advancements in nanozyme-mediated bacterial detection. It is structured around the primary signal transduction modalities: colorimetric, fluorescence, electrochemical, and surface-enhanced Raman scattering (SERS) analyses. For each approach, we outline the fundamental design principles, which commonly integrate a synergistic cascade of specific recognition, catalytic signal amplification, and signal readout, and present representative applications for detecting key pathogens like Staphylococcus aureus, Salmonella, and Listeria monocytogenes in complex samples. We evaluate and contrast the advantages, analytical performance, and appropriateness of these different platforms for various practical scenarios. Finally, we address current challenges, including achieving high specificity in complex matrices, precise modulation of nanozyme activity, and method standardization. Perspectives on future research directions aimed at developing next-generation, high-performance, and potentially portable bacterial detection systems are also provided. Full article

Carbon dots (CDs), including carbon quantum dots (CQDs), are ultra-small carbon-based nanomaterials, typically below 10 nm, with tunable photoluminescence, high aqueous dispersibility, favorable biocompatibility, low toxicity, and abundant surface functional groups. These properties make CDs promising multifunctional platforms for nanomedicine, particularly in bioimaging, biosensing, targeted drug/gene delivery, photodynamic therapy (PDT), photothermal therapy (PTT), antimicrobial treatment, and theranostic applications. This review critically examines recent advances in CD fabrication, including top-down, bottom-up, green biomass-derived, microwave-assisted, hydrothermal, and emerging hybrid strategies, with emphasis on how precursor selection, heteroatom doping, surface passivation, and polymer/ligand functionalization regulate optical performance, biological interaction, and therapeutic efficiency. The review discusses structural classification, including CQDs, graphene quantum dots (GQDs), carbon nanodots, and carbonized polymer dots (CPDs), together with major characterization approaches such as ultraviolet–visible (UV–Vis) spectroscopy, Fourier-transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy, X-ray diffraction (XRD), X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS), Raman spectroscopy, and high-resolution transmission electron microscopy (HRTEM). Particular attention is given to red/near-infrared (NIR) emission, renal clearance, drug-loading behavior, reactive oxygen species (ROS) generation, toxicity mechanisms, biodistribution, and long-term biosafety. This review also highlights key translational barriers, including batch-to-batch variability, limited standardization, scalable manufacturing, regulatory uncertainty, and incomplete pharmacokinetic evaluation. It considers artificial intelligence (AI) and machine learning (ML) as emerging tools for reproducible CD design. CDs represent versatile and clinically promising nanoplatforms, but their translation requires standardized synthesis, rigorous safety assessment, and application-specific regulatory validation. Full article

Per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) have been extensively used for many years in the manufacturing of industrial and commercial goods. Their toxicity and their extensive use, stability, durability, persistence, and bioaccumulation are responsible for the contamination of water, soil, air, and food, causing significant harm to human health and the environment. The objective of this chapter is to evaluate the ability of advanced (bio)sensing strategies for the sensitive, accurate, rapid, simple, and low-cost detection of PFAS in drinking water and the environment. We address advanced bio(sensing) strategies by emphasizing the electrochemical (bio)sensing strategies and the optical bio(sensing) strategies. The principle of each method, the mechanisms involved in the detection, the linear range, the limit of detection, and the applicability are underlined. Finally, this review outlines the major challenges and outlook to move advanced (bio)sensing strategies from the laboratory stage to practical applications in the environment, food, and health. Full article

Chronic kidney disease (CKD) is a progressive and irreversible disorder affecting over 850 million individuals globally and is associated with significant morbidity, mortality, and healthcare burden. Conventional diagnostic approaches rely on intermittent laboratory measurements, including serum creatinine, estimated glomerular filtration rate (eGFR), and urinary albumin, which provide limited temporal resolution and fail to capture dynamic physiological changes. Recent advances in wearable biosensing technologies offer new opportunities for continuous, non-invasive monitoring of biochemical and physiological markers relevant to renal function. This review provides a comprehensive analysis of wearable biosensors for CKD monitoring, focusing on sensing mechanisms (electrochemical, optical, and field-effect transistor), biofluid interfaces (sweat, interstitial fluid, and saliva), and materials engineering strategies enabling flexible, high-performance devices. Emphasis is placed on biofluid transport dynamics, analytical performance across sampling matrices, and system-level integration with wireless communication and digital health platforms. Key challenges limiting clinical translation, including biofouling, enzymatic instability, and variability in biofluid composition, are examined—alongside emerging solutions such as antifouling interfaces, synthetic recognition elements, and multimodal sensing architectures. Finally, regulatory pathways and the role of artificial intelligence in digital nephrology are discussed. This review highlights the potential of wearable biosensors to transform CKD management through continuous monitoring, early detection, and personalized therapeutic intervention. Full article

Temperature/pH dual-responsive hydrogels are a class of smart materials capable of undergoing reversible structural or functional changes in response to temperature and pH stimuli. Owing to their remarkable dual-stimuli-responsive characteristics, these hydrogels have demonstrated significant potential in various biomedical applications, including drug delivery, tissue engineering, and diagnostics technologies, making them a prominent research focus. Although considerable progress has been made in recent years, a systematic summary of the preparation methods, structural design strategies and complex biomedical applications of these materials remains conspicuously absent. Consequently, this review aims to comprehensively examine the latest advancements in this field. First, the primary preparation methods of temperature/pH dual-responsive hydrogels, including chemical crosslinking, physical crosslinking, and hybrid crosslinking, are introduced and compared. Subsequently, the main structural design strategies, including microsphere, core–shell and layered structures, and their corresponding fabrication processes are systematically elucidated. Finally, the recent progress of temperature/pH dual-responsive hydrogels in biomedical applications is discussed, including drug delivery, cancer therapy, biosensing and diagnosis, tissue engineering and regenerative medicine, as well as wound healing. Based on the current research progress, this review also outlines the major challenges in the development of temperature/pH dual-responsive hydrogels, and presents perspectives on future research directions. Full article

Bilirubin is an important biomarker, where a small unbound fraction dissociated from albumin can cross the blood–brain barrier and induce neurotoxicity, such as kernicterus, at low nanomolar levels. Accurate detection of this low-level fraction remains challenging. Surface-enhanced Raman spectroscopy (SERS) enables label-free molecular detection; however, variations in the local refractive index (RI) at plasmonic hotspots can detune the resonance from the excitation wavelength, leading to signal fluctuations and limited quantitative reliability. Here, we present a multi-resonant nanolaminate SERS substrate designed to achieve RI-insensitive and robust signal enhancement. The vertically stacked metal–insulator–metal architecture provides broadband spectral overlap with both excitation and Raman scattering under dielectric loading, maintaining consistent enhancement across varying RI conditions. We demonstrate label-free bilirubin detection with a highly linear response over 10⁻⁹ to 10⁻⁴ M, achieving an R² value of 0.99. Compared with previously reported bilirubin SERS substrates relying mainly on single-resonant plasmonic enhancement, this RI-insensitive design offers improved quantitative reliability under dielectric environmental changes. These results highlight the importance of RI-insensitive SERS design for reliable quantification and provide a general strategy for robust SERS-based biosensing. Full article

Glycosylation is a critical determinant of extracellular vesicle (EV) biology, shaping vesicle biogenesis, stability, biodistribution, cellular recognition, and uptake. Because EV glycans mirror disease-associated remodeling of parental cells, EV glycosylation is emerging as both a rich source of biomarkers and a functional regulator of regenerative signaling. This review highlights how altered EV glycosylation generates disease-specific signatures across major cancers, including lung, hepatocellular, colorectal, bladder, ovarian, pancreatic, and prostate cancer, and also discusses evidence in neurological, neuropsychiatric, metabolic, autoimmune, urinary, and musculoskeletal disorders. Beyond diagnostics, we examine the growing role of EV glycosylation in regenerative medicine, where glycan-dependent targeting and tissue interactions contribute to neural, cardiac, renal, skeletal, joint, and skin repair. We further provide an integrated overview of analytical strategies for EV glycosylation research, spanning mass spectrometry-based glycomics and glycoproteomics, affinity-based profiling, lectin microarrays, imaging, spectroscopic methods, advanced biosensing and nanotechnology-based approaches, and emerging artificial intelligence and bioinformatics tools. Current methodological challenges, biosafety issues, translational barriers, and future technologies are also critically discussed. Altogether, this review positions EV glycosylation as a promising interface between EV biology, precision diagnostics, and next-generation regenerative therapeutics. Full article

Sleep apnea is a prevalent sleep-related breathing disorder characterized by recurrent cessations or reductions in airflow during sleep. It significantly impacts the quality of life, yet current diagnostic methods like polysomnography (PSG) are expensive and uncomfortable, limiting accessibility and ease of use. We developed a novel non-contact biosensing system using secondary laser speckle pattern analysis and dedicated image processing algorithms for apnea-like breathing cessations. The proposed method was tested on $14$ healthy subjects with diverse body characteristics, aged 22–50 years (mean $33.1 \pm 9.3$ years) and body mass index (BMI) ranging from $19.6$ to $28.7$ kg/m² (mean $24.6 \pm 3.0$ kg/m²) at different ‘simulated’ sleeping positions (back-lying, stomach-lying and side-lying), using voluntary breath-holding protocols to simulate apnea-like cessations lasting 10–20 s (short duration) and 20–30 s (long duration). To evaluate the performance of the system without selection bias, two complementary five-fold cross-validation procedures were applied: a participant-level and a class-level stratification. Using class-wise stratification, the system achieved an overall accuracy of $87.0 \pm 3.0\%$ (95% CI: [85.3%, 88.7%]), long-cessation sensitivity of $91 \pm 12.4\%$$(95\% \mathrm{C}\mathrm{I}:[83.8\%,98.2\%\left]\right)$ and a short-cessation sensitivity of $88.0 \pm 11\%$$\left(95\% \mathrm{C}\mathrm{I}:[81.6\%,94.4\%]\right)$. The two-class classification strategy confirm the robustness of the approach, supporting the potential of secondary laser speckle pattern analysis as a low-cost, non-contact alternative for home-based sleep apnea screening. Full article

Background: Conventional therapeutic and diagnostic approaches, despite improving clinical outcomes, remain limited by poor bioavailability, inadequate targeting, suboptimal pharmacokinetics, and systemic toxicity, particularly in complex diseases. To overcome this, nanomedicine has emerged as a transformative strategy, employing engineered nanoparticles to enhance drug stability, controlled release, targeted delivery, and diagnostic performance, thereby enabling theranostic applications. This review evaluates major nanoparticle platforms in therapy and diagnosis, comparing their mechanisms, applications, and challenges while highlighting their potential to advance precision medicine and theranostic strategies. Method: For providing the context and evidence, relevant literatures were sourced from Google Scholar, PubMed, and ScienceDirect using targeted keywords including “drug delivery,” “diagnostics,” “nanoparticles,” “nanomedicine,” “nano drug delivery,” “nanotheranostics,” “targeted therapy,” “controlled drug release,” “solid lipid nanoparticles (SLNs),” “lipid nano carriers (LNCs),” and “inorganic nanoparticles.” Although no strict time limit was applied during the literature search, clinical trial data were collected and analyzed up to January 2026. Given that clinical trial registries are continuously updated, the included trials represent the status at the time of data retrieval. However, it is pertinent to note that the earliest relevant studies appeared in 1973. Conclusions: This review highlights nanoparticle fundamentals, major material classes, mechanisms of action, and applications in targeted therapy, imaging, and theranostics. It also addresses translational barriers related to safety, scalability, biological complexity, and regulatory compliance. Overcoming these challenges through standardized characterization and interdisciplinary collaboration is crucial for clinical adoption. Future efforts should focus on AI-driven design, computational tools, smart nanomedicines, and advanced biosensing technologies to integrate nanoparticle-enabled precision diagnostics and therapy into routine clinical practice. Full article

The development of highly sensitive and reliable strategies for microcystin-LR (MC-LR) monitoring remains critical for environmental safety and public health protection. Herein, we report a metallene-enabled electrochemiluminescence (ECL) biosensing platform based on ultrathin PdMoCu trimetallic metallenes for femtogram-level MC-LR detection. The two-dimensional PdMoCu metallenes provide abundant active sites and accelerated interfacial charge-transfer kinetics through synergistic electronic modulation among Pd, Mo, and Cu atoms, significantly enhancing the Ru(bpy)₃²⁺/TPrA ECL efficiency. By integrating a programmable H1–aptamer duplex interface, electrostatic enrichment of Ru(bpy)₃²⁺ was achieved, enabling target-responsive luminophore release via aptamer-triggered structural switching. This cooperative amplification mechanism, combining catalytic acceleration and DNA-mediated signal modulation, results in a sensitive signal-off detection mode. Under optimized conditions, the biosensor exhibited a wide linear response from 0.1 pg mL⁻¹ to 50 ng mL⁻¹ with a detection limit as low as 37 fg mL⁻¹. The platform demonstrated excellent selectivity against structural analogues, high reproducibility, and satisfactory recovery (99.3–102.0%) in real tap water samples. This work not only highlights the catalytic potential of trimetallic metallenes in ECL systems but also establishes a generalizable interfacial engineering strategy for ultrasensitive detection of trace environmental contaminants. Full article

Accurate analysis of prostate cancer (PC)-related biomarkers requires sensing platforms capable of sensitive and multiplex detection in complex biological environments. Herein, we propose a signal-on electrochemical aptamer-based sensor (E-AB) for the simultaneous detection of L-lactate (L-Lac) and prostate-specific antigen (PSA). To maximize analytical performance, two Lac aptamer sensing configurations, single-stranded (ssLac201) and double-stranded (dsLac201), were constructed and comparatively evaluated. The dsLac201 structure displayed more effective background suppression and enhanced target induced signal response. Under optimized conditions, the dsLac201-based sensor exhibited a wide linear range from 500 nM to 10 mM for L-Lac, with a low detection limit of 157 nM and high selectivity. Based on this optimized design, a dual-aptamer electrochemical platform was further engineered through programmable nucleic acid assembly, enabling simultaneous detection of L-Lac and PSA via dual-input signal integration. The dual-target sensor showed broad analytical ranges for both biomarkers (L-Lac: 500 nM–10 mM; PSA: 10 pg mL⁻¹–500 ng mL⁻¹) and retained promising performance in serum samples. This work demonstrates a simple and versatile strategy for multiplex electrochemical biosensing and provides a promising platform for PC-related biomarker monitoring and clinical biomedical analysis. Full article

Paper-based devices (PADs) have gained increasing attention over the last few years as portable, low-cost and disposable (bio)sensors for point-of-care and on-site analysis. Electrochemistry is a particularly attractive detection mode in PAD assays thanks to its sensitivity and compatibility with portable instrumentation. In particular, electrochemical stripping analysis (ESA) is one of the most sensitive electroanalytical techniques, and, therefore, is suitable for trace assays required in environmental monitoring, clinical diagnostics and food control. Coupling paper as a functional platform with the exceptional sensitivity of ESA creates a powerful analytical tool for trace metals and (bio)sensing. This perspective briefly outlines the current state-of-the art in the field of paper-based (bio)sensors using ESA. It describes the principle of ESA, illustrates different strategies for on-paper electrode fabrication and modification and demonstrates representative applications to trace metal analysis and biosensing. Finally, limitations are identified and future prospects are discussed. Full article

This review comprehensively examines the incorporation of nanoparticles (NPs) into biopolymers for 3D printing in biomedical applications, integrating material design, processing strategies, and translational considerations within a unified framework. Different types of NPs are analyzed regarding their effects on mechanical reinforcement, rheological modulation, and structural organization of biopolymeric matrices. The discussion covers principal additive manufacturing technologies, including extrusion-based systems such as fused deposition modeling (FDM) and direct ink writing (DIW), vat photopolymerization, powder-bed fusion (SLS), and emerging in situ nanoparticle formation approaches, emphasizing how nanoparticle loading and surface functionalization govern yield stress, shear-thinning behavior, viscoelastic recovery, and dimensional fidelity while mitigating agglomeration and optimizing interfacial interactions. Comparative evaluation of compressive modulus, strength, toughness, crystallinity, and porosity establishes structure–property–processing relationships directly linked to printability and functional performance. Biomedical applications are addressed in tissue engineering, biosensing, controlled and targeted drug delivery, and bioimaging, highlighting the balance between bioactivity and manufacturability. Finally, critical challenges—including compatibility, reproducibility, biological safety, long-term stability, regulatory adaptation, and environmental impact—are discussed, alongside future perspectives focused on green nanomaterials, AI-driven predictive formulation design, and digital twins for real-time monitoring and quality control in nano-enabled additive manufacturing. Full article