Search Results (19)

Modern vehicles depend on over-the-air (OTA) updates to maintain security, safety, and functionality, but the attack surface of an update campaign depends on the underlying electrical/electronic architecture and on the controls assumed for update orchestration. This article reports a bounded, model-based TARA study for distributed, domain-based, and zonal vehicle architectures, which is implemented in Medini Analyze and interpreted against ISO/SAE 21434, UNECE Regulations R155 and R156, and ISO 24089 guidance. The comparison unit is not an architecture’s absolute security level. It is the architecture-conditioned instantiation of OTA trust anchors, update paths, STRIDE threat classes, evidence obligations, control-dependency assumptions, and sensitivity of model outputs under a harmonized TARA workflow. The model indicates that distributed architectures expose heterogeneous endpoints and legacy buses, and domain architectures reduce endpoint sprawl while elevating telematics and domain controllers as trust anchors. Moreover, zonal architectures can consolidate orchestration and monitoring under hardening assumptions while concentrating assurance obligations around high-performance computers, backbones, and Zone Controllers. Sensitivity checks show that raw threat counts, High/Critical counts, and severity distributions are model-granularity- and assumption-sensitive; they are therefore reported as diagnostics for traceability and evidence planning, not as real-world security rankings. The contribution is a reproducible interpretation of where OTA threat instances, trust boundaries, and regulatory evidence burdens move as vehicle E/E architectures change. Full article

This paper presents a Threat Analysis and Risk Assessment (TARA) of the takeover request (TOR) component in Advanced Driver Assistance Systems (ADAS) for SAE Level 2–3 automation. A TOR prompts the human driver to retake control when the system approaches its Operational Design Domain limits or when risk increases; late, false, or muted requests directly impact safety. The study models the TOR pipeline (perception, driver monitoring, decision logic, in-vehicle networks, and Human–Machine Interface) as assets and data flows, applies STRIDE-based threat identification using Microsoft Threat Modeling Tool and Ansys Medini Analyze, and rates risks under ISO/SAE 21434 with traceability to ISO 26262, ISO 21448, and UNECE R155/R157. The assessment produces 165 threat rows, with an initial risk distribution of 1 Critical, 113 High, 34 Medium, and 17 Low. Results show that tampering, denial of service, and spoofing dominate the TOR threat landscape, with the central processing unit, sensor-to-CPU links, and HMI channels as primary trust anchors. After applying mitigation measures including secure boot, message authentication, intrusion detection, redundancy checks, and encrypted communication, the residual post-mitigation security levels were reduced to 0 Critical, 0 High, 13 Medium, 101 Low, and 51 Negligible. Unlike other ADAS TARA studies, this TOR-focused analysis shows that cybersecurity risk is shaped by the interaction between cyber compromise, driver-readiness estimation, HMI delivery, fallback execution, and the limited handover time budget. The results support a defence-in-depth mitigation strategy for secure TOR operation in SAE Level 2–3 vehicles. Full article

The electrification of urban buses under forthcoming Euro 7 regulations requires new structural solutions ensuring both safety and efficient mass distribution. This study proposes a novel conceptual electric bus body structure with battery-integrated inter-window pillars, in which energy storage systems are embedded. The concept was evaluated using finite element analysis in ANSYS under UNECE R66 rollover conditions by comparing an original diesel configuration (O-model) with a battery-integrated electric (B-model) one. Despite a substantial increase in body mass (from 1947 to 5464 kg), the B-model demonstrated improved structural performance. The maximum deformation decreased from 1489.5 to 1319.7 mm, while the difference between the control point displacements decreased from 32.21 to 12.68 mm. The average relative deformation of pillars decreased from 8.48% to 3.59%, and the intrusion amplitude was reduced from approximately 566 to 167 mm. Analysis showed comparable peak von Mises stresses (414.62 MPa vs. 439.19 MPa), but the B-model exhibited a 6.7% reduction in critical regions and a 16.9% decrease in average stress levels. The B-model remained within the elastic regime at the end of the simulation, whereas the O-model showed residual plastic deformation. The results indicate that integrating battery systems into load-bearing pillars leads to improved structural stiffness and deformation behaviour under rollover conditions, while full certification-level verification of UNECE R66 compliance is beyond the scope of the present study. Full article

The widespread adoption of hydrogen fuel cell electric vehicles (FCEVs) is currently hindered by the significant cost and lack of geometric flexibility of conventional Type IV pressure vessels made from carbon fiber reinforced plastic (CFRP). These tanks are difficult to integrate into future vehicle platforms optimized for modular batteries. This study, therefore, presents a novel compressed hydrogen storage system (CHSS) based on a modular assembly of seamless steel cylinders. The objective of this approach is to create a design-flexible and cost-effective alternative that adapts to the limited installation space of modern electric vehicle architectures while offering a sustainability advantage through the high recyclability of steel. The system was specifically designed to meet the stringent requirements of the UNECE R134 regulation and subsequently subjected to rigorous experimental validation. The evaluation included all four test sequences required for component certification: Baseline Tests, Performance Durability Test, On-Road Performance Test and Fire Test. The successful validation demonstrates that the developed modular steel-based CHSS meets all relevant safety and performance requirements. It, therefore, represents a technically and economically promising technology that can make a decisive contribution to accelerating hydrogen mobility through its superior design flexibility and sustainability. Full article

Achieving the EU 2030 target of a 30% CO₂ reduction requires transitioning intercity buses to CNG- or fuel-cell-driven vehicles, and urban buses to electric vehicles. The increasing mass of roof-mounted energy systems, such as battery packs, creates additional loads on the body frame. This study investigates the integration of a welded handrail system into the bus body frame as an additional load-bearing element. A combined approach based on dynamic modeling and finite element analysis was applied to evaluate the structural body response under the UNECE R100 and R110 regulations. The results demonstrate that the structural concept significantly improves the stress–strain state of the body frame. Maximum roof displacements under 5g loading decreased by 34% for the gas-powered model and by 50% for the electric model, enhancing passive safety by reducing window-rack intrusion. Maximum stress decreased by 20%, shifting the stress state below the ultimate strength of S235 steel and preventing rupture. Uniform strength under vertical loading increased significantly (by 58%) due to a more favorable stress distribution within the structure. Overall, the results indicate that integrating a welded handrail truss into the bus body frame can effectively improve structural stiffness and redistribute loads within the frame. Full article

Ensuring the crashworthiness of heavy-duty truck cabs is essential for reducing occupant fatalities and improving passive safety in commercial vehicles. Regulatory frameworks such as UNECE Regulation No. 29 (R29) define structural integrity requirements through full-scale destructive impact tests, which are costly and limit iterative design. In this study, an integrated experimental–numerical methodology is presented for the impact assessment of a real Iveco Eurocargo 120E18 truck cab reconstructed using high-resolution 3D scanning. The scanned geometry was used to generate a dimensionally accurate CAD model of the load-bearing cab structure, which was analysed using explicit finite element simulations in ANSYS Academic Mechanical and CFD Teaching package under impact conditions compliant with UNECE R29 and implemented according to the Swedish regulation VVFS 2003:29. In parallel, a full-scale physical pendulum impact test was performed on the same cab using a cylindrical impactor with a diameter of 580 mm, a length of 1800 mm, and a mass of approximately 1000 kg, impacting the upper region of the A-pillar. The experimental setup was instrumented using high-speed optical measurements and an accelerometer to capture impact kinematics and structural response. The numerical predictions showed good agreement with experimental results in terms of acceleration–time histories, absorbed energy evolution, and structural deformation, with differences generally below 6%. Critical regions susceptible to local buckling and plastic collapse were consistently identified in both approaches, while preservation of the driver survival space was confirmed. The results demonstrate that scan-based finite element models, when properly calibrated and validated, can reliably reproduce certification-level impact behaviour. The proposed workflow provides a robust and cost-effective framework for regulatory pre-validation, structural optimisation, and digitalisation of crashworthiness assessment for heavy-duty truck cabs. Full article

This computational study examined how variations in the seatback angle of two generic child restraint systems (CRSs) affect spinal loading in young occupants (1.5 YO and 3 YO) during frontal impacts, performed according to the specifications included in UNECE R129. CRS seatback angle dictates torso recline, which in turn influences head, chest, and spine kinematics and loading. While manufacturers typically recommend 30–45° for rear-facing CRSs and an upright position for forward-facing CRSs, little is known about the biomechanical implications of deviating from these guidelines. Using PIPER human body models representing a 1.5-year-old in a rear-facing CRS and a 3-year-old in a forward-facing CRS, simulations were performed under UN-R129 frontal impact conditions. The seatbacks were rotated 5° and 10° more upright or reclined relative to the nominal angle, with occupants restrained by a five-point harness and CRSs secured with ISOFIX, top tether, or three-point belt. The results showed that reclined configurations generally increased the predictions of spinal loading (forces and/or moments) given by the PIPER model, while nominal or more upright angles reduced loads, particularly in the lumbar spine of the 3-year-old model. Overall, the study highlights how computational tools can guide CRS design improvements to optimize spinal protection and enhance child safety beyond current regulatory requirements. Full article

This paper evaluates Advanced Driver Assistance Systems (ADASs) in test scenarios derived from naturalistic driving and crash data, mapped to ISO 26262, ISO/PAS 21448 (SOTIF), and ISO 34502. From eight high-risk scenarios, it is validated for left turns across oncoming traffic on a proving ground using a Škoda Superb iV against a soft Global Vehicle Target. ODD and spatiotemporal thresholds are parameterized and speed/acceleration profiles from GNSS/IMU data are analyzed. AEB and FCW performance varies across nominally identical runs, driven by human-in-the-loop variability and target detectability. In successful interventions, peak deceleration reached −0.64 g, meeting UNECE R152 criteria; in other runs, late detection narrowed TTC below intervention thresholds, leading to contact. Limitations in current protocols are identified and argue for scenario catalogs with realistic context (weather, surface, masking) and latency-aware metrics. The results motivate extending validation beyond standard tracks toward mixed methods linking simulation, scenario databases, and instrumented field trials. Full article

This systematic literature review pioneers the synthesis of cybersecurity challenges for automotive digital twins (DTs), a critical yet underexplored frontier in connected vehicle security. The notion of digital twins, which act as simulated counterparts to real-world systems, is revolutionizing secure system design within the automotive sector. As contemporary vehicles become more dependent on interconnected electronic systems, the likelihood of cyber threats is escalating. This comprehensive literature review seeks to analyze existing research on threat modeling and security testing in automotive digital twins, aiming to pinpoint emerging patterns, evaluate current approaches, and identify future research avenues. Guided by the PRISMA framework, we rigorously analyze 23 studies from 882 publications to address three research questions: (1) How are threats to automotive DTs identified and assessed? (2) What methodologies drive threat modeling? Lastly, (3) what techniques validate threat models and simulate attacks? The novelty of this study lies in its structured classification of digital twin types (physics based, data driven, hybrid), its inclusion of a groundbreaking threat taxonomy across architectural layers (e.g., ECU tampering, CAN-Bus spoofing), the integration of the 5C taxonomy with layered architectures for DT security testing, and its analysis of domain-specific tools such as VehicleLang and embedded intrusion detection systems. The findings expose significant deficiencies in the strength and validation of threat models, highlighting the necessity for more adaptable and comprehensive testing methods. By exposing gaps in scalability, trust, and safety, and proposing actionable solutions aligned with UNECE R155, this SLR delivers a robust framework to advance secure DT development, empowering researchers and industry to fortify vehicle resilience against evolving cyber threats. Full article

The problem of the conversion of diesel buses to electric ones in connection with the inevitable introduction of the EURO 7 emission standards entails an automatic requirement to follow several additional United Nations Economic Commission for Europe rules, like R100 regulations. They regulate the preservation of battery units at longitudinal 12 g and transverse 10 g accelerations without penetrating into the elements of the bus body. Three models (12 modes in total) of battery units with frames made of S235 steel were analysed. The maximum stress value varies between 364.89 MPa and 439.08 MPa in 10 g and 12 g modes, respectively, which is beyond the tensile strength (360 MPa) and provokes plastic deformations. The max deformations were recorded in the models with the highest average stress: 63.04 mm in the 12 g mode with an average stress of 83.18 MPa. The minimum deformations of 6.95 and 7.95 mm were found in the 10 g modes (left and right acceleration direction, respectively), which meet the manufacturer’s requirements (45–50 mm maximum). The study’s primary contribution lies in developing a practical method for assessing battery unit integrity and structural behaviour during the conversion of diesel buses to electric propulsion, fully compliant with R100 regulations. By combining transient structural simulation, mathematical centre modelling of acceleration propagation, and centre of gravity prediction, the proposed approach enables engineers to evaluate electric conversions’ safety and certification feasibility without modifying the existing bus body. Full article

The publication presents methods and pre-test results of a stand for testing CHSS in terms of resistance to open fire. The basis for the conducted research is the applicable provisions contained in the UN/ECE Regulation R134. The study includes an overview of contemporary solutions for hydrogen storage systems in high-pressure tanks in means of transport. Development in this area is a response to the challenge of reducing global carbon dioxide emissions and limiting the emissions of toxic compounds. The variety of storage systems used is driven by constraints, including energy demand and available space. New tank designs and conducted tests allow for an improvement in systems in terms of their functionality and safety. Today, the advancement of modern technologies for producing high-pressure tanks allows for the use of working pressures up to 70 MPa. The main goal of the presented research is to present the requirements and research methodology verifying the tank structure and the security systems used in open-fire conditions. These tests are the final stage of the approval process for individual pressure vessels or complete hydrogen storage systems. Their essence is to eliminate the occurrence of an explosion in the event of a fire. Full article

Electric and hybrid vehicles are known for their significant reduction in road noise. However, concerns have emerged regarding their silent operation, potentially increasing risks for other road users. To mitigate this, the Acoustic Vehicle Alert System (AVAS) has been mandated by regulations such as R138 by UNECE in the USA and Europe. This regulation dictates the generation of sound in electric vehicles of categories M and N1 during normal, reverse, and forward motion without the internal combustion engine engaged. Compliance involves meeting specific sound requirements based on vehicle mode and condition. This paper introduces a Python-based approach to designing digital horn sounds, leveraging music theory and signal processing techniques to replace traditional mechanical horns in electric vehicles equipped with AVAS devices. The aim is to offer a practical and efficient means of generating digital horn sounds using this software. The software includes an application capable of producing and customizing horn sounds, with the HornSoundGeneratorGUI class providing a user-friendly interface built with the Tkinter library. To validate the digital horn produced sounds by the software and ensure compliance with AVAS regulations, comprehensive electrical and acoustic tests were conducted in a fully equipped quality laboratory. The results demonstrated that the sound levels achieved met the required 105–107 dB/2 m standard specified by the regulation. Full article

Frontal crash tests are an essential element in assessing vehicle safety. They simulate a collision that occurs when the front of the bus hits another vehicle or an obstacle. In recent years, much attention has been paid to the frontal crash testing of city buses, especially after a series of accidents resulting in deaths and injuries. Unlike car manufacturers, most bus bodybuilders do not include deformation zones in their designs. The next two regulations are widely used to assess whether a structure can withstand impact loading: UNECE Regulation No. 29—United Nations Economic Commission for Europe (UNECE R29) and the New Car Assessment Program (NCAP), which is more typical of car crash tests. The main goal of the research is to develop an applicable methodology for a frontal impact simulation on a city bus, considering UNECE R29 requirements for the passenger’s safety and distinctive features of the low-entry body layout. Among the contributions to current knowledge are such research results as: unlike suburban and intercity buses, city buses are characterized by lower stiffness in the event of a frontal collision, and therefore, when developing new models, it is necessary to lay deformation zones (currently absent from most city buses). Maximum deformation values in the bus front part are reached earlier for R29 (137 ms) than for most impacts tested by NCAP (170–230 ms) but have higher values: 577 mm vs. 150–250 mm for the sills tested. Such a short shock absorption time and high deformations indicate a significantly lighter front part of a low-entry and low-floor bus compared with classic layouts. Furthermore, it is unjustified to use the R29 boundary conditions of trucks to attach the bus with chains behind its frontal axe both in natural tests and appropriate finite element simulation—the scheme of fixing the city bus should be accordingly adapted and normatively revised. Full article

The core idea of the research consists in a formulation of boundary conditions of a mechanical accelerator pedal’s strength in an Ansys environment, whose conditions are equivalent to full-scale tests under the critical loads defined by the UNECE’s Regulation No. 13. The lack of regulatory requirements for the strength of pedal types other than brake pedals is a major gap in vehicle certification, especially when it comes to agricultural machinery. In such cases, the authors suggest being guided by UNECE R 13 regarding the strength of the accelerator and other types of pedals and checking their behavior under loads of at least 1000 N. The real value of the yield strength of the material (Silumin 4000) is very important, both in the physical real-life experiments and in FEA simulation. The critical case of a short-term shock loading of the pedal in its extreme position has been considered separately. With the help of the Ansys Explicit Dynamics module, results of a pedal’s behavior were obtained; it lost its integrity and suffered destruction. It is also necessary to check the intermediate stress values depending on the loads for direct and hybrid tasks using the Transient Structural module in order to estimate other critical cases of the pedal behavior. Full article

Modern vehicles are more complex and interconnected than ever before, which also means that attack surfaces for vehicles have increased significantly. Malicious cyberattacks will not only exploit personal privacy and property, but also affect the functional safety of electrical/electronic (E/E) safety-critical systems by controlling the driving functionality, which is life-threatening. Therefore, it is necessary to conduct cybersecurity testing on vehicles to reveal and address relevant security threats and vulnerabilities. Cybersecurity standards and regulations issued in recent years, such as ISO/SAE 21434 and UNECE WP.29 regulations (R155 and R156), also emphasize the indispensability of cybersecurity verification and validation in the development lifecycle but lack specific technical details. Thus, this paper conducts a systematic and comprehensive review of the research and practice in the field of automotive cybersecurity testing, which can provide reference and advice for automotive security researchers and testers. We classify and discuss the security testing methods and testbeds in automotive engineering. Furthermore, we identify gaps and limitations in existing research and point out future challenges. Full article