Search Results (79)

The Cau River Basin in northeastern Vietnam is an ecologically and economically important watershed, yet it has lacked comprehensive hydrological modelling to date. Characterised by highly complex topography, diverse land use/land cover, and limited hydrometeorological data, the basin presents challenges for water resource assessment and management. This study applies the SWAT hydrological model to simulate streamflow dynamics in the Cau River Basin over a 31-year period (1990–2020) using multiple-source geospatial data, including a 30 m digital elevation model, official soil and land use maps, and daily climate records from six meteorological stations. Model calibration (1997–2008) and validation (2009–2020) were conducted using the SWAT-CUP tool, achieving strong performance with a Nash–Sutcliffe Efficiency (NSE) of 0.95 and 0.90, and R² of 0.95 and 0.91, respectively. Sensitivity analysis identified four key parameters most influential on streamflow (curve number, saturated hydraulic conductivity, soil evaporation compensation factor, and available water capacity), supporting a more focused and effective calibration process. Model results revealed substantial spatio-temporal variability in runoff, with annual surface runoff ranging from 19.8 mm (2011) to 56.4 mm (2013), generally lower in upstream sub-watersheds (<30 mm) and higher in downstream areas (>60 mm). The simulations also showed a clear seasonal contrast between the wet and dry periods. These findings support evidence-based strategies for flood and drought mitigation, inform agricultural and land use planning, and offer a transferable modelling framework for similarly complex watersheds. Full article

In the context of global warming and the intensification of human activities, the change in runoff is also increasing. It is very important to determine the change in runoff for the rational utilization of water resources. In order to determine the influencing factors of runoff change in Muling River, the SWAT model was used in this study to separate different coupling factors and calculate the contribution rate of a single factor to runoff change at the annual scale and quarterly scale, respectively. In the process of calibration, different single rate times were used to analyze the influence of different rate times on the calibration results. The results show that the runoff in the Muling River basin shows a downward trend, the quarterly temperature factor has the greatest influence on the runoff change, which is 50–60%, the annual precipitation has the greatest influence on the runoff change, which is 68%, and the maximum change in the runoff from the reservoir is 42.5% under the change in human activities. In the SWAT-CUP software, the optimal number of calibration for this basin is 500. This research provides a scientific basis for the flow analysis of the Muling River basin. Full article

Increasing forest destruction from land use and land cover change (LULCC) has altered catchment hydrological processes worldwide. This trend is also endemic to the Belize River Watershed (BRW), a significant source of land and water resources for Belize. This study aims to understand LULCC impacts on BRW hydrological responses from 2000 to 2020 by applying the widely used Soil and Water Assessment Tool (SWAT). This study identified historical trends in LULCC in the BRW and explored an alternative 2020 land cover scenario to elucidate the role of protected forests for hydrological response regulation. A SWAT model for the BRW was developed at the monthly timescale and calibrated on in situ streamflow using SWAT Calibrations and Uncertainty Programs (SWAT-CUP). The results showed that the BRW SWAT model performed satisfactorily for streamflow simulation at the Benque Viejo (BV) gauge station but performed variably at the Double Run (DR) gauge station. Overall, the findings revealed watershed-level increases in monthly average sediment yield (34.40%), surface runoff (24.95%), streamflow (16.86%), water yield (16.02%), baseflow (11.58%), and percolation (3.40%), and decreases in monthly average evapotranspiration (ET) (3.52%). In conclusion, the BRW SWAT model is promising for uncovering the hydrological impacts of LULCCs with opportunities for further model improvement. Full article

The Okavango River is a transboundary waterway that flows through Angola, Namibia, and Botswana, forming a significant alluvial fan in northwestern Botswana. This fan creates a Delta that plays a vital role in the country’s GDP through tourism. While research has primarily focused on the Delta, the river’s catchment area in the Angolan highlands—its main water source and critical for downstream flow—has been largely overlooked. The basin is under pressure from development, water abstraction, and population growth in the surrounding areas, which negatively affect the environment. These challenges are intensified by climate change, leading to increased water scarcity that necessitates improved management strategies. Currently, there is a lack of published research on the basin’s hydrology, leaving many hydrological parameters related to streamflow in the catchments inadequately understood. Most existing studies have employed single-site calibration methods, which fail to capture the diverse characteristics of the basin’s catchments. To address this, a SWAT model has been developed to simulate the hydrologic behaviour of the basin using sequential multisite calibration with data from five gauging stations, including the main river systems: Cubango and Cuito. The SUFI2 program was used for sensitivity analysis, calibration, and validation. The initial sensitivity analysis identified several key parameters: the Soil Evaporation Compensation Factor (ESCO), the SCS curve number under moisture condition II (CN2), Saturated Hydraulic Conductivity (SOL_K), and Moist Bulk Density (SOL_BD) as the most influential. The calibration and validation results were generally satisfactory, with a coefficient of determination ranging from 0.47 to 0.72. Analysis of the water balance and parameter sensitivities revealed the varied hydrologic responses of different sub-watersheds with distinct soil profiles. Average annual precipitation varies from 1116 mm upstream to 369 mm downstream, with an evapotranspiration-to-precipitation ratio ranging from 0.47 to 0.95 and a water yield ratio between 0.51 and 0.03, thereby revealing their spatial gradients, notably increasing evapotranspiration and decreasing water yield downstream. The SWAT model’s water balance components provided promising results, with soil moisture data aligned with the TerraClimate dataset, achieving a coefficient of determination of 0.63. Additionally, the model captured the influence of the El Niño–Southern Oscillation (ENSO) on local hydrology. However, limitations were noted in simulating peak and low flows due to sparse gauge coverage, data gaps (e.g., groundwater abstraction, point sources), and the use of coarse-resolution climate inputs. Full article

The water level and surface area of Urmia Lake, located in the northwest of Iran, has decreased dramatically, presenting significant challenges for hydrological modeling due to complex interactions between surface and groundwater. In this study, the impact of agricultural activities on streamflow within one of the largest sub-basins of Urmia Lake is assessed using the Soil and Water Assessment Tool (SWAT) for hydrological assessments. To have accurate assessments, land use change detections were considered by a novel method, which merges the Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI) with the Digital Elevation Model (DEM) to create a two-band NDVI-DEM image, effectively differentiating between agricultural and rangeland fields. Our findings reveal that agricultural development and irrigation, escalating between 1977 and 2015, resulted in increased annual evapotranspiration (ET) (ranging from 295 mm to 308 mm) and a decrease in yearly streamflow, from 317 million cubic meters to 300 million cubic meters. Overall, our study highlights the significant role that agricultural development and irrigation may play in contributing to the shrinking of Lake Urmia, underscoring the need for improved regional water management strategies to address these challenges, though further analysis across additional basins would be necessary for broader conclusions. Full article

This study investigates the hydrological dynamics of the Pativilca Basin in the Southern Hemisphere using the SWAT (Soil and Water Assessment Tool) model. Seventy-seven watersheds across a mountainous region were analyzed using elevation data, land cover, soil type, and gridded meteorological products (RAIN4PE and PISCO) for hydrological simulations. Watershed delineation, aided by a Digital Elevation Model, enabled the identification of critical drainage points and the definition of Hydrological Response Units (HRUs). The model calibration and validation, performed using the SWAT-CUP with the SUFI-2 algorithm, achieved Nash–Sutcliffe Efficiency (NSE) values of 0.69 and 0.72, respectively. Cluster analysis categorized the watersheds into six distinct groups with unique hydrological and climatic characteristics. The results showed significant spatial variability in the precipitation and temperature, with pronounced seasonality influencing the daily flow patterns. The higher-altitude watersheds exhibited greater soil water storage and more effective aquifer recharge, whereas the lower-altitude watersheds, despite receiving less precipitation, displayed higher flows due to runoff from the upstream areas. These findings emphasize the importance of incorporating seasonality and spatial variability into water resource planning in mountainous regions and demonstrate the SWAT model’s effectiveness in predicting hydrological responses in the Pativilca Basin, laying the groundwork for future research in mountain hydrology. Full article

Surface runoff is a key component of the hydrological cycle and is essential for water resource management and water ecological balance in river basins. It is important to accurately reveal the spatial and temporal dynamics of regional surface runoff over long time scales and to quantify the impacts of climate change and human activities on surface runoff changes for sustainable water resources management and utilization. In this study, the Minjiang River Basin (Chengdu section) was selected, which has significant natural and anthropogenic variations, and a comprehensive analysis of runoff and its drivers will help to formulate an effective regional water resource management strategy. We mainly used SWAT to simulate the monthly-scale runoff in the Chengdu section of the Minjiang River Basin from 1990 to 2019 and combined SWAT-CUP to perform sensitivity analysis on the model parameters and Partial Least Squares Structural Equation Modeling (PLS-SEM) to quantitatively analyze the main drivers of the changes in surface runoff. The results show that the average multi-year runoff in the Minjiang River Basin (Chengdu section) ranges from 628.96 to 1088.46 mm, with an average value of 834.13 mm, and that the overall annual runoff in the past 30 years shows a fluctuating tendency. The goodness-of-fit of the PLS-SEM model is 0.507; the validity and reliability assessment indicated that the model was reasonable, and its results showed that economic and landscape factors had significant negative impacts on runoff changes, while natural factors had positive impacts on runoff changes, with path coefficients of −0.210, −0.131, and 0.367, respectively. Meanwhile, this study also identified two potential indirect impact pathways, i.e., the economic factors had an indirect negative impact on runoff by changing the distribution of landscapes, and the natural factors had indirect negative impacts on runoff by influencing economic activities, reflecting the complex interactions among economic activities, landscape distribution, and natural factors in influencing surface runoff. This study provides a research framework and methodology for quantitatively modeling surface runoff and the analysis of influencing factors in watersheds, contributing to a deeper scientific understanding of long-term runoff changes and the contribution of their drivers. Full article

Hydrological modeling plays a vital role in water-resource management and climate-change studies in hyper-arid regions. In the present investigation, surface runoff was estimated by a Soil and Water Assessment Tool (SWAT) model for Wadi Al-Aqul, Saudi Arabia. The Sequential Uncertainty Fitting version 2 (SUFI-2) technique in SWAT-CUP was adopted for the sensitivity analysis, calibration, and validation of the SWAT model’s components. The observational runoff data were scarce and only available from 1979 to 1984; such data scarcity is a common problem in hyper-arid regions. The results show good agreement with the observed daily runoff, as indicated by a Pearson Correlation Coefficient (r) of 0.86, a regression (R²) of 0.76, and a Nash–Sutcliffe coefficient (NSE) of 0.61. Error metrics, including the Mean Absolute Error (MAE) and Root Mean Square Error (RMSE), were notably low at 0.05 and 0.58, respectively. In the daily validation, the model continued to perform well, with a correlation of 0.76 and regression of 0.58. As a new approach, fitted parameters of daily calibration were incorporated into the monthly simulation, and they demonstrated an even better performance. The correlation coefficient (regression) and Nash–Sutcliffe were found to be extremely high during the calibration period of the monthly simulation, reaching 0.97 (0.95) and 0.73, respectively; meanwhile, they reached 0.99 (0.98) and 0.63 in the validation period, respectively. The sensitivity analysis using the SUFI-2 algorithm highlighted that, in the streamflow estimation, the Curve Number (CN) was found to be the most responsive parameter, followed by Soil Bulk Density (SOL_BD). Notably, the monthly results showed a higher performance than the daily results, indicating the inherent capability of the model in regard to data aggregation and reducing the impact of random fluctuations. These findings highlight the applicability of the SWAT model in predicting runoff and its implication for climate-change studies in hyper-arid regions. Full article

This study aims to estimate the surface runoff and examine the impact of climate change on water resources in the Upper Kabul River Basin (UKRB). A hydrological model was developed using the Soil and Water Assessment Tool (SWAT) from 2009 to 2019. The monthly calibration was conducted on streamflow in six stations for the period from 2010 to 2016, and the results were validated from 2017 to 2018 based on available observed data. The hydrological sensitivity parameters were further prioritized using SWAT-CUP. The uncertainty of the model was analyzed by the 95% Prediction Uncertainty (95PPU). Future projections were analyzed for the 2040s (2030–2049) and 2090s (2080–2099) compared to the baseline period (1986–2005) under two representation concentration pathways (RCP4.5, RCP8.5). Four Regional Climate Models (RCMs) were bias-corrected using the linear scaling bias correction method. The modeling results exhibited a very reasonable fit between the estimated and observed runoff in different stations, with NS values ranging from 0.54 to 0.91 in the calibration period. The future mean annual surface runoff exhibited an increase in the 2040s and 2090s compared to the baseline under both RCPs of 4.5 and 8.5 due to an increase in annual precipitation. The annual precipitation is projected to increase by 5% in the 2040s, 1% in the 2090s under RCP4.5, and by 9% in the 2040s and 2% in the 2090s under RCP8.5. The future temperature is also projected to increase and consequently lead to earlier snowmelt, resulting in a shift in the seasonal runoff peak to earlier months in the UKRB. However, the shifts in the timing of runoff could lead to significant impacts on water availability and exacerbate the water stress in this region, decreasing in summer runoff and increasing in the winter and spring runoffs. The future annual evapotranspiration is projected to increase under both scenarios; however, decreases in annual snowfall, snowmelt, sublimation, and groundwater recharge are predicted in the UKRB. Full article

Recognizing how human activities affect hydrological systems is vital for the sustainable preservation and effective management of water resources in the watershed. Hence, this paper focuses on the hydrological response to land use and land cover (LULC) change scenarios in the Anyang watershed, South Korea. We obtained LULC data maps for the years 2000, 2013, and 2022 from the local government, revealing significant changes over the years. Agricultural lands experienced a 6.2% increase from 2000 to 2022, and pastureland expanded by 8.67% over two decades. The SWAT model was utilized to assess the impact of LULC on the hydrological components of the study watershed. Model calibration and validation for each LULC change were carried out using the SWAT-CUP program, considering the recorded streamflow information of the region. An excellent agreement was reached between the simulated and measured streamflow in both the calibration and validation stages under various LULC conditions. The Nash–Sutcliffe model efficiency (NSE), the objective function, demonstrated values of 0.9, 0.89, and 0.89 during the calibration for 2000, 2013, and 2022, respectively, in the LULC scenario, while for the validation, we obtained values of 0.82, 0.78, and 0.80 for 2000, 2013, and 2022, respectively. Our findings indicate that the surface runoff rise contributed much to the water yield increase over the two decades compared to the other components in terms of the water yield, while the contribution of evapotranspiration (ET) to the watershed hydrological cycle declined by 1.66% from 2000 to 2022. The southeastern sub-basin part showed a high groundwater recharge distribution due to agricultural land, rice area, and forest area changes. Full article

Climate change has an impact on water resources. Estimations of the variations in water balance under climate change variables are essential for managing and developing the water resource of a catchment. The current investigation evaluated the magnitude of the change in the water balance component of the Akaki catchment, Ethiopia, using the semi-distributed hydrological model, the Soil and Water Assessment Tool (SWAT), with the integration of the Coordinated Regional Downscaling Experiment of Africa under RCP4.5 and 8.5. The SWAT model was developed using spatial and temporal data; it was calibrated (1991–2001) and validated (2002–2004) using SWAT-CUP. The statistical monthly SWAT model performance values of the NSE, PBIAS (%), and R² showed good agreement between calibration and validation. On an annual basis, projected rainfall is expected to increase by 14.96%, 4.13%, 8.39%, and 10.39% in the 2040s under RCP4.5 and 8.5 and in the 2060s under RCP4.5 and 8.5, respectively, with inconsistent change on a monthly projections basis for each scenario. The projected monthly and yearly temperatures are expected to increase under different climate change scenarios. Annual evapotranspiration and potential evapotranspiration increased under both RCPs, whereas surface runoff, lateral flow, and water yield declined under the climate scenarios of each RCP. Monthly projected water yield showed a non-uniform change in the first 30 years and in the second years under the RCP4.5 and RCP8.5 scenarios. These results show that the catchment is highly vulnerable to hydrological and agricultural drought due to water availability. These research findings provide valuable evidence on the role of climate change in water balance, which will help decision makers to achieve better water resource management. Full article

The hydrological assessment of the Vistula River basin in the near future will be a key element in the development of strategies to adapt agriculture to climate change. The Vistula River basin covers 61% of Poland’s area (190,062 km²) and is mainly used for agricultural production. The aim of this study is to assess the water balance of the Vistula River basin from the perspective of 2050 based on the analysis of two climate scenarios, RCP 4.5 and RCP 8.5, and the three climate models ICHEC-EC-EARTH_KNMI-RACMO22E (A), ICHEC-EC-EARTH_DMI-HIRHAM5 (B), and ICHEC-EC-EARTH_SMHI-RCA4 (C). This paper presents the steps in the development of the SWAT model and the results of the hydrological analysis of the Vistula catchment. Calibration and validation of the model were carried out using the SUFI-2 algorithm in the SWAT-CUP programme for 2013–2018. The data used to calibrate the SWAT model are monthly flow measurements [m³/s] from the measurement station in Tczew, located near the estuary of the Vistula basin to the Baltic Sea. The summary result of the work is the results of modelling the flow of the Vistula River catchment for different climate scenarios in the 2020–2050 perspective. The average annual precipitation for all projections in 2021–2030, 2031–2040, and 2041–2050 will be higher by up to 22% (763 mm) (RCP 8.5.C for 2041–2050) compared to the 2013–2018 simulation years (624 mm). The average annual temperature for most climate projections for 2021–2030 will fall to as low as 8.7 °C (RCP 4.5.B) compared to the 2013–2018 simulation period (9.2 °C). In contrast, for all projections in 2031–2040 and 2041–2050, the average annual temperature will increase to as much as 10.3 °C (RCP 8.5.C). The simulation results for the climate projections (2020–2050) indicate that there are no clear trends of change in the water management of the Vistula River basin for the coming decades. According to scenarios RCP 4.5.A, RCP 8.5.A, and RCP 8.5.B, the annual sums of potential evapotranspiration show a slight downward trend. On the other hand, for the RCP 8.5.C and RCP 4.5.C projections and the climate change scenario RCP 4.5.B, the results obtained show a slight upward trend in the annual sum of potential evapotranspiration. For the overall evapotranspiration and potential evapotranspiration assessment for all climate projections analysed, the annual evapotranspiration total shows a clear increase compared to the 2013–2018 baseline period. The average annual actual evapotranspiration for all projections in 2021–2030, 2031–2040, and 2041–2050 will increase up to 467 mm (RCP 4.5.A—2021–2030) compared to the 2013–2018 simulation period of 401 mm. The average annual potential evapotranspiration for all projections in 2021–2030, 2031–2040, and 2041–2050 will increase up to 755 mm (RCP 8.5.C—2031–2040) compared to the 2013–2018 simulation period—616 mm. The analysis of the total runoff in all climate models for the RCP 4.5 scenario shows that the annual average total runoff tends to decrease. The results of the simulations carried out for the RCP 8.5 scenario, which are generally characterised by an increase in total runoff in subsequent years, are different. When analysing annual total runoff on a regional basis, it appears that for most of the climate projections analysed (except for the RCP 8.5.A scenario), annual runoff will be lower, especially in the lowlands in the central part of the Vistula basin. In regions where the increase in precipitation is greatest in the north-western and southern basins, higher total runoff should be expected. The analysis of the total runoff in all climate models for the RCP 4.5 scenario shows that the annual average total runoff tends to decrease. The results of the simulations carried out for the RCP 8.5 scenario, which are generally characterised by an increase in total runoff in subsequent years, are different. When analysing annual total runoff on a regional basis, it appears that for most of the climate projections analysed (except for the RCP 8.5.A scenario), annual runoff will be lower, especially in the lowlands in the central part of the Vistula basin. In regions where the increase in precipitation is greatest in the north-western and southern basins, higher total runoff should be expected. Full article

This study was conducted in the Atwood and Tappan Lakes watersheds of the Tuscarawas basin of Ohio. The flow, total nitrogen (TN), and total phosphorus (TP) loadings were monitored with the help of local stakeholders for a few years at various locations of the watershed to develop the Soil and Water Assessment Tool (SWAT). The multi-site SWAT model calibration and validation were accomplished with a reasonable model performance. In the next step, the scenario analysis was conducted in the SWAT model using various BMPs, including vegetative filter strips, grass waterways, fertilizer reduction, crop rotation, and cover crops to evaluate their performance in reducing TN and TP from the watershed. While BMPS in many studies are decided based on researchers’ intuition, these BMPs were selected based on active consultation with the local stakeholders, who were engaged in the reduction of TN and TP loadings from the watersheds. Since the SWAT model calibration for TN and TP was not as good as the hydrologic model calibration, various scenarios of TN and TP reduction using BMPs were investigated for several years using both calibrated and uncalibrated SWAT models. We examined all the BMPs in 12 sub-watersheds of the Atwood and 10 sub-watersheds of the Tappan Lake watershed. The analysis indicated that the management practices of cover crops (rye) in combination with grass waterways with a 10% fertilizer reduction could minimize the TN and TP loading by as much as 88%, without significantly compromising the agricultural yield. However, a 10% fertilizer reduction without any BMPs could reduce TN and TP by just 9%. The cover crop (rye) including 10% fertilizer reduction with grass waterways seemed to be the most effective in reducing TN and TP, whereas the implementation of a filter strip led to a 70% reduction and was the next effective BMPs in reducing TN and TP loadings. In general, TN losses were reduced by 8% to 53%, while TP losses were reduced by 7% to 88%, depending on the BMPs used. By and large, the TN and TP reduction achieved through the calibrated model was not significantly different from the uncalibrated model, even though the reduction using the calibrated model was slightly higher for all scenarios than that of the uncalibrated model. The TN and TP loadings were highly sensitive to cattle grazing. When just 50% of the cattle were permitted to graze, the model predicted that there would be a 40% increase in total nitrogen and a 70% increase in total phosphorus in both watersheds. Our investigation revealed that monitoring the watershed at a small sub-watershed scale and calibrating the SWAT model for nitrogen and phosphorus is delicate. Full article

The present work aims to highlight the possibility of improving model performance by assimilating soil moisture information in the calibration and validation process. The Soil and Water Assessment Tool (SWAT) within QGIS, i.e., QSWAT, was used to simulate the hydrological processes within the test basin, i.e., Vosvozis River Basin (VRB) in NE Greece. The model calibration and validation were conducted via SWAT-CUP for a four-year period from 2019 to 2022, in three different ways, i.e., using the traditional calibration process with river flow measurements, using satellite-based soil moisture only in the calibration, and finally incorporating satellite-based soil moisture datasets and calibrating using simultaneously flow and soil moisture information. All modeling approaches used the same set of input data related to topography, land cover, and soil information. This study utilized the recently released global scale daily downscaled soil moisture at 1 km from the Soil Moisture Active Passive (SMAP) mission to generate soil moisture datasets. Two performance indicators were evaluated: Nash Sutcliffe (NS) and coefficient of determination (R²). Results showed that QSWAT successfully simulated river flow in VRB with NS = 0.61 and R² = 0.69 for the calibration process using river flow measurements at the outlet of VRB. However, comparing satellite-based soil moisture, NS and R² were considerably lower with an average derived from the 19 subbasins (NS = 0.55, R² = 0.66), indicating lower performance related to the simulation of soil moisture regime. Subsequently, introducing satellite-derived soil moisture as an additional parameter in the calibration process along with flow improved the acquired average soil moisture results of the 19 subbasins (NS = 0.85, R² = 0.91), while preserving the satisfactory performance related to flow simulation (NS = 0.57, R² = 0.66). Our work thus demonstrates how assimilating available satellite-derived soil moisture information into the SWAT model may offer considerable improvement in the description of soil moisture conditions, keeping the satisfactory performance in flow simulation. Full article

The shortage of water resources is a long-standing constraint on the development of the Chinese economy and society. In this paper, the climate change occurring in Hulan River Basin is analyzed using the data collected at Wangkui Meteorological Station from 1960 to 2020. The overall temperature in the basin shows an upward trend, with a cumulative increase of 1.6 °C, as does the precipitation, which reaches 566.2 mm. In contrast, there is a downward trend shown by wind speed, with a cumulative decrease of 1.313 m/s. GIS remote sensing technology is applied to build a SWAT distributed hydrological model for the purpose of conducting runoff simulation in Hulan River Basin, and SWAT-CUP software is used to correct and analyze the simulation results. The parameters of snow melt are set to improve the accuracy of the model. The runoff data collected from Lanxi Hydrological Station from 2008 to 2020 are used to verify the model. The results show that the efficiency coefficient (NES) and correlation coefficient (R²) are 0.75 and 0.84, respectively, in the validation period from 2010 to 2013, while they are 0.77 and 0.93, respectively, in the correction period from 2014 to 2016, meeting the criteria of model evaluation. It can be seen from results noted above that SWAT is applicable in Hulan River Basin, providing a certain reference for the management of hydrological and water resources available in this region and for the construction of a distributed hydrological model of rivers in those high-latitude cold regions. Full article