Search Results (10)

During the 10th to 12th centuries, the Song, Liao, and Goryeo Dynasties and Japanese regimes in East Asia engaged in frequent activities of requesting and granting the Chinese Tripitaka (the Chinese Buddhist Canon), forming a distinctive diplomatic phenomenon termed “Tripitaka Diplomacy”. This paper examines the political and cultural dynamics underlying these cross-border interactions by analyzing the historical records of such activities among the polities. It also explores the multifaceted role of the Tripitaka in East Asian international relations, which transcended its religious significance to shape diplomatic strategies and power dynamics. Through this lens, this paper reveals the complexity of the East Asian international order during this period, emphasizing how the circulation of the Tripitaka served as both a cultural bridge and a tool for political negotiation. Full article

Buddhist culture in Liaoning has a long and rich history. The continuous spread of Buddhism has promoted the development of Buddhist architecture, leaving us a rich architectural art heritage. Furthermore, it has also profoundly influenced China’s architectural characteristics, social culture, and economic development. This paper takes Buddhist temples and pagodas in Liaoning as the research objects and uses methods such as the geographic concentration index, nearest neighbor index, kernel density estimation, and standard deviation ellipse to analyze their spatio-temporal distribution characteristics and influencing factors across different periods. 1. Temporal distribution. During the Liao Dynasty (907–1125 AD) and the Qing Dynasty (1636–1912 AD), the construction of Buddhist temples and pagodas was the highest, with a linear increase in the Qing Dynasty. 2. The overall spatial distribution of Buddhist temples and pagodas in Liaoning is uneven, showing an agglomeration distribution state. The distribution status of different periods was different, and the Ming (1368–1644 AD) and Qing dynasties (1636–1912 AD) showed obvious aggregation distribution. The overall state is “more in the west and less in the east” and “more in the north and less in the south”. 3. In different periods, the spatial distribution direction of Buddhist temples and pagodas in Liaoning was relatively obvious and was southwest–northeast, and the center of gravity gradually shifted to the northwest. 4. The kernel density of different periods presents the density distribution and area of each period. The overall distribution is dense to scattered and then to highly dense. 5. The spatio-temporal distribution characteristics of Buddhist temples and pagodas in Liaoning are mainly composed of deep-seated political factors, rapid economic development and stable social environment, diverse culture, natural geography, cultural relics protection, and the artistic value of Buddhist architecture in the Liaoning region. Full article

The Huayansi 華嚴寺, situated at the frontier stronghold of the Liao Dynasty in the Western Capital, is a significant royal temple that preserves two main halls from the Liao and Jin Dynasties to this day. Through a systematic examination of the Liaoshi 《遼史》 and the related literature, this study offers a novel interpretation of the east–west dual-axial layout of the Huayansi and its historical significance. It further discusses the integral artistic space of the Buddha and the Dharma within the Bhagavata Scriptures Hall 薄伽教藏殿, which shapes the spiritual realm of the Western Pure Land, thereby repositioning and enhancing the historical value of the Bhagavata Scriptures Hall. The article elucidates the political and cultural core elements embedded within the formation of the parallel axes of the Bhagavata Scriptures Hall and the Mahavira Hall, which are closely associated with three pivotal years in the Liao Dynasty: 1038, 1044, and 1062. This not only reflects the grand historical context of the Liao Dynasty’s domestic governance and foreign policy during the 10th and 11th centuries but also encapsulates the rich and diverse religious beliefs and cultural traits of the Khitan 契丹 people. The axis space of the Bhagavata Scriptures Hall, constructed earlier during the reign of Xingzong 興宗 to house the Liao Canon 《遼藏》, along with the architectural complex of the Huayansi—named and commissioned by Emperor Daozong 道宗 24 years later—collectively establishes a dual-axial worship space at the Grand Huayansi, sanctified by the triad of the Buddha 佛, the Dharma 法, and the Ancestors 祖. This underscores the Liao Dynasty’s political objectives of deterring hostile states and ensuring national security within the framework of Buddhist veneration and ancestor worship. Full article

The Yungang Grottoes, excavated during the 5th to 6th centuries AD, stand as a pinnacle of Buddhist sculpture, representing a precious world cultural heritage. Since their excavation, the grottoes have undergone multiple phases of painting, with a significant amount of pigment still present on the surfaces of the stone carvings. Since the 1990s, two large-scale archaeological excavations have been conducted on both the front ground and the summit of Yungang Grottoes. During these excavations, various artifacts with accompanying pigments were unearthed, encompassing stone carvings, grinding tools, architectural components, fragments of murals, and remnants of clay sculptures, spanning the historical periods of the Northern Wei, Liao-Jin, and Ming-Qing dynasties. Using portable X-ray fluorescence spectrometry, portable microscopy, polarizing microscopy, scanning electron microscopy–energy dispersive X-ray spectroscopy, and confocal Raman microscopy, we conducted a comprehensive analysis of these painted elements. The investigation revealed the presence of hematite, vermilion, goethite, malachite, calcium carbonate, lead white, and ivory black pigments in the Northern Wei samples. The Liao-Jin samples exhibited hematite, while the Ming-Qing samples contained vermilion, minium, atacamite, lead white, and Prussian blue. Full article

Glazed tiles are characteristic architectural ceramics traditionally used in ancient Chinese royal buildings. Studies on their chemical compositions have provided valuable information regarding their compositional classifications and the provenances of their raw materials. Existing studies have mainly focused on the Yuan dynasty (1271–1368 AD) or later. Research on earlier ages is limited because of a lack of samples. In this study, we used an energy-dispersive X-ray fluorescence spectrometer to analyze the chemical compositions of 18 glazed tiles unearthed from an imperial mausoleum (the Xinli site) from the Liao dynasty (969–982 AD). The glazes of the tiles had a SiO₂–Al₂O₃–PbO ternary oxidic system and the bodies of the tiles had a SiO₂–Al₂O₃ binary oxidic system. Certain compositional differences were observed among the samples with different types of decorations. Compared with samples from the Yuan dynasty and later periods, the Xinli samples had higher SiO₂ and Al₂O₃ contents and lower PbO and CuO contents in the tile glazes. The tile bodies of the Xinli samples had compositions similar to those of tile bodies from the Qing dynasty (1616–1912 AD). We speculated that the Xinli samples with different decorations came from different kiln sites. Full article

For many women living in parts of present-day north China and Mongolia during the 10th to 14th centuries, equestrian activities were a part of daily life. Women of all social levels were expected to know how to ride from an early age. However, documentary evidence for women’s participation in equestrian activities during this period is sparse. This paper brings together materials that highlight the important role horse riding played in the lives of northern women during the 10th to 14th centuries from the funerary context. This study connects funerary objects with women’s participation in polo, hunting, warfare, and the Mongol postal system, among other activities. The synthesis of material evidence from tombs with period texts will illuminate the important role of equestrian activities in women’s lives and afterlives during this period. Full article

Inscriptions of Buddhist mantras and dhāraṇīs were interred in Chinese tombs on behalf of the deceased from the Tang dynasty onward as the fear of postmortem judgment and punishment in the ten courts of hell became firmly rooted. This notion of the afterlife and the practice of enclosing dhāraṇī inscriptions in tombs seem to have been received by Korean Buddhists by the beginning of the Koryŏ (918–1392). This paper, through a close examination of a wooden inner coffin excavated in 2014 from a tomb in Nongso-myŏn, Ullim-ri, Sunch’ang-gun, North Chŏlla Province of Korea, sheds new light on the use of dhāraṇī on funerary objects and structures during the Koryŏ. The coffin bears, on its lacquered exterior walls, inscriptions of the Mantra of the Six-Syllable King of Great Clarities (Oṃ maṇi padme hūṃ) and the Mantra for Shattering Hell (Oṃ karadeya svāhā). While defining the dhāraṇī coffin from Nongso Tomb as one form of funerary dhāraṇī, this paper situates it in the historical trajectory of such practice by comparing it with Liao (916–1125) precedents. The dhāraṇī coffins from Koryŏ and Liao tombs attest that the Buddhists made use of mantras and dhāraṇīs promising salvation of the deceased from hell during their lifetime and beyond. This study shows that two different kinds of dhāraṇīs, which are similarly named and believed to have the power of shattering hell, were practiced by Chinese and Korean Buddhists. It also proposes that the Mantra for Shattering Hell (Oṃ karadeya svāhā) may have been transmitted to the Korean peninsula as part of the food bestowal ritual before its incorporation into the funerary context. Full article

Narratives of willow trees in Yuan zaju 雜劇, or variety play, largely come in three types, namely, the ritual performance of shooting willows; the deliverance of willow spirits by Lü Dongbin, one of the Eight Immortals of Daoism; and the use of the word willow to refer to women. The willow shooting ritual depicted in Yuan zaju was highly reminiscent of the willow shooting ritual popular throughout the Song (960–1279), Liao (916–1125), Jin (1115–1234), and Yuan (1271–1368) dynasties, with its conceptual origins traceable to the ancient shamanic belief in the willow as a sacred tree prevalent among the Khitans and Jurchens who lived in what is now northeastern China. The legend of Lü Dongbin delivering a willow spirit to immortality is a recurring motif in Han Chinese folklore and Daoist hagiography, which also finds expression in the iconic image of Guanyin Pusa or Bodhisattva Avalokitesvara holding a willow branch with which they cure diseases for people and bring fulfillment to their wishes. The frequent use of “willow leaf-shaped eyebrows” (liumei 柳眉) and “willow-like waist” (liuyao 柳腰) in Yuan zaju as metaphorical references to women can be seen as a continuation of the great literary tradition of Shijing 詩經 (The Book of Songs) and also as a dramatic enactment of the fertility cult of the willow and women in Chinese folk religion. Evidence abounds that the narratives about the willow in Yuan zaju were not a new creation but an artistic manifestation of centuries-old folk belief and literary tradition. Full article

The Medieval Wall System of China and Mongolia is one of the longest wall systems in the world, but its specific chronology, function, and purpose remain ambiguous. Constructed at various points throughout the 10th to 13th centuries CE, this network of walls, forts, and enclosures covers an estimated 4000 km and spans a wide range of ecozones, from the deserts of western China to the steppes of northern Mongolia and the Khingan mountain range. In this article we used historical atlases, topographic maps, and an array of different kinds of data derived from satellite remote sensing, to produce one of the first accurate maps of the Medieval Wall System. Through this large-scale mapping program, we are now able to evaluate previous work that estimates the length of the wall system and different areas of construction. By measuring the structures associated with the wall and the length of the wall itself, we identified at least three different areas of construction along the Medieval Wall System. Future studies may be able to use similar tools to develop more accurate maps of other wall systems throughout Eurasia to further advance the comparative study of ancient wall systems. Full article

Building-information-modeling for cultural heritage (HBIM), which is established using surveying data, can be used to conserve architectural heritage. The development of an HBIM model for ancient wooden architecture (AWA) structures requires interdisciplinary integration. A parametric model for the main components that intelligently integrates the historical knowledge, as well as an intelligent modeling method for these components, are two critical issues required to bridge the existing gap and improve the application of HBIM. Taking an AWA structure constructed during the Liao and Song Dynasties as an example, the parametric model for the typical components, with emphasis on commonality and characteristics, were first proposed. Subsequently, an intelligent automated modeling method was developed and programmed using Dynamo, which can intelligently identify the component type and determine the invisible dimensions. A complicated dou-gong was successfully established with surveying data using the proposed method within five minutes, thereby validating the reliability and efficiency of this method. Furthermore, the proposed method was used to establish the HBIM model of Yingxian Wood Pagoda, which is the oldest and tallest AWA structure in China with a height of 65.88 m. The research findings will provide an essential reference for the conservation of wooden architectural heritage structures. Full article