Saved Queries

by Fouad Meradsi, Adel Lekbir, Oussama A. Bensaci, Abdelkader Tifferent, Asim Abbasi, Assia Djemoui, Nazih Y. Rebouh, Abeer Hashem, Graciela Dolores Avila-Quezada, Khalid F. Almutairi and Elsayed Fathi Abd_Allah

Insects 2025, 16(8), 817; https://doi.org/10.3390/insects16080817 (registering DOI) - 7 Aug 2025

Abstract

Broad bean is one of the most important leguminous crops worldwide. However, its productivity is greatly affected by the infestation of Aphis fabae and Aphis craccivora (Hemiptera: Aphididae). The main objective of the current study was to identify the most susceptible phenological stages of the broad bean variety (Histal) against black aphids’ herbivory. This had been achieved through an evaluation of plant resistance mechanisms such as antixenosis and antibiosis. The results regarding an antixenosis test revealed that the four tested phenological stages of V. faba did not have a significant effect on the preference of A. craccivora and A. fabae towards the crop plant. Overall, a slightly higher number of adults settled on the three and four unfolded leaves’ stage of the crop plant. Similarly, the highest number of developed embryos were found in the four leaves’ stage of the crop, and the lowest in the second leaf stage. The adult body size of A. craccivora was slightly larger in the case of the three unfolded leaves. Furthermore, the maximum body size of A. fabae adults was recorded in the case of the first unfolded leaf stage crop. Linear correlations between the biological parameters for both species revealed only one significant relationship between developed and total embryos for A. craccivora. The results of the current study highlight the need to protect broad bean crops against infestations of black aphids, i.e., A. craccivora and A. fabae. This is essential for reducing direct damage and preventing the transmission of phytoviruses. However, future studies should aim to evaluate the susceptibility of all developmental phenological stages of the crop against black aphids to mitigate potential crop losses. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Insect Behavior and Pathology)

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19 pages, 2057 KiB

Open AccessReview

Therapeutic Opportunities in Overcoming Premature Termination Codons in Epidermolysis Bullosa via Translational Readthrough

by Kathleen L. Miao, Ryan Huynh, David Woodley and Mei Chen

Cells 2025, 14(15), 1215; https://doi.org/10.3390/cells14151215 (registering DOI) - 7 Aug 2025

Abstract

Epidermolysis Bullosa (EB) comprises a group of inherited blistering disorders caused by pathogenic variants in genes essential for skin and mucosal integrity. Nonsense mutations, which generate premature termination codons (PTCs), result in reduced or absent protein expression and contribute to severe disease phenotypes in EB. Readthrough therapies, which may continue translation past PTCs to restore full-length functional proteins, have emerged as promising approaches. This review summarizes findings from preclinical studies investigating readthrough therapies in EB models, clinical studies demonstrating efficacy in EB patients, and emerging readthrough agents with potential application to EB. Preclinical and clinical studies with gentamicin have demonstrated restored type VII collagen and laminin-332 expression, leading to measurable clinical improvements. Parallel development of novel compounds—including aminoglycoside analogs (e.g., ELX-02), translation termination factor degraders (e.g., CC-90009, SRI-41315, SJ6986), tRNA post-transcriptional inhibitors (e.g., 2,6-diaminopurine, NV848), and nucleoside analogs (e.g., clitocine)—has expanded the therapeutic pipeline. Although challenges remain regarding toxicity, codon specificity, and variable protein restoration thresholds, continued advances in molecular targeting and combination therapies offer the potential to establish readthrough therapies as localized or systemic treatments addressing both cutaneous and extracutaneous disease manifestations in EB. Full article

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21 pages, 767 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Promoting Sustainable Mobility on Campus: Uncovering the Behavioral Mechanisms Behind Non-Compliant E-Bike Use Among University Students

by Huihua Chen, Yongqi Guo and Lei Li

Sustainability 2025, 17(15), 7147; https://doi.org/10.3390/su17157147 (registering DOI) - 7 Aug 2025

Abstract

Electric bikes (e-bikes) offer a low-carbon, space-efficient solution for campus mobility, yet their sustainable potential is increasingly challenged by patterns of non-compliant use, including speeding, informal parking, and unauthorized charging. This study integrates the Theory of Planned Behavior (TPB) and the Technology Acceptance Model (TAM) to examine the cognitive and contextual factors that shape such behaviors among university students. Drawing on a survey of 408 e-bike users and structural equation modeling, the results show that non-compliance is primarily driven by perceived usefulness, ease of action, and behavioral feasibility, with affective and normative factors playing indirect, reinforcing roles. Importantly, actual behavior is influenced not only by intention but also by students’ perceived capacity to act within low-enforcement environments. These findings highlight the need to align behavioral perceptions with sustainability goals. The study contributes to sustainable mobility governance by clarifying key psychological pathways and offering targeted insights for designing perception-sensitive interventions in campus transport systems. Furthermore, by promoting compliance-oriented campus mobility, this research highlights a pathway toward enhancing the resilience of transport systems through behavioral adaptation within semi-regulated environments. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Enhancing Resilience in Road Transport Networks Within a Sustainable Perspective: Assessment, Risk Management, and Decision Support Systems)

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20 pages, 3734 KiB

Open AccessReview

Microbial Community and Metabolic Pathways in Anaerobic Digestion of Organic Solid Wastes: Progress, Challenges and Prospects

by Jiachang Cao, Chen Zhang, Xiang Li, Xueye Wang, Xiaohu Dai and Ying Xu

Fermentation 2025, 11(8), 457; https://doi.org/10.3390/fermentation11080457 (registering DOI) - 7 Aug 2025

Abstract

Anaerobic digestion (AD) is a sustainable and widely adopted technology for the treatment of organic solid wastes (OSWs). However, AD efficiency varies significantly across different substrates, primarily due to differences in the microbial community and metabolic pathways. This review provides a comprehensive summary of the AD processes for four types of typical OSWs (i.e., sewage sludge, food waste, livestock manure, and straw), with an emphasis on their universal characteristics across global contexts, focusing mainly on the electron transfer mechanisms, essential microbial communities, and key metabolic pathways. Special attention was given to the mechanisms by which substrate-specific structural differences influence anaerobic digestion efficiency, with a focused analysis and discussion on how different components affect microbial communities and metabolic pathways. This study concluded that the hydrogenotrophic methanogenesis pathway, TCA cycle, and the Wood–Ljungdahl pathway serve as critical breakthrough points for enhancing methane production potential. This research not only provides a theoretical foundation for optimizing AD efficiency, but also offers crucial scientific insights for resource recovery and energy utilization of OSWs, making significant contributions to advancing sustainable waste management practices. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Feature Review Papers in Industrial Fermentation, 2nd Edition)

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26 pages, 2444 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Multi-Stage Feature Selection and Explainable Machine Learning Framework for Forecasting Transportation CO₂ Emissions

by Mohammad Ali Sahraei, Keren Li and Qingyao Qiao

Energies 2025, 18(15), 4184; https://doi.org/10.3390/en18154184 (registering DOI) - 7 Aug 2025

Abstract

The transportation sector is a major consumer of primary energy and is a significant contributor to greenhouse gas emissions. Sustainable transportation requires identifying and quantifying factors influencing transport-related CO₂ emissions. This research aims to establish an adaptable, precise, and transparent forecasting structure for transport CO₂ emissions of the United States. For this reason, we proposed a multi-stage method that incorporates explainable Machine Learning (ML) and Feature Selection (FS), guaranteeing interpretability in comparison to conventional black-box models. Due to high multicollinearity among 24 initial variables, hierarchical feature clustering and multi-step FS were applied, resulting in five key predictors: Total Primary Energy Imports (TPEI), Total Fossil Fuels Consumed (FFT), Annual Vehicle Miles Traveled (AVMT), Air Passengers-Domestic and International (APDI), and Unemployment Rate (UR). Four ML methods—Support Vector Regression, eXtreme Gradient Boosting, ElasticNet, and Multilayer Perceptron—were employed, with ElasticNet outperforming the others with RMSE = 45.53, MAE = 30.6, and MAPE = 0.016. SHAP analysis revealed AVMT, FFT, and APDI as the top contributors to CO₂ emissions. This framework aids policymakers in making informed decisions and setting precise investments. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Integrated Solutions for Transportation and Energy Systems: Advancing Sustainable Mobility and Power Infrastructure)

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27 pages, 15414 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Epimedium-Derived Exosome-Loaded GelMA Hydrogel Enhances MC3T3-E1 Osteogenesis via PI3K/Akt Pathway

by Weijian Hu, Xin Xie and Jiabin Xu

Cells 2025, 14(15), 1214; https://doi.org/10.3390/cells14151214 (registering DOI) - 7 Aug 2025

Abstract

Healing large bone defects remains challenging. Gelatin scaffolds are biocompatible and biodegradable, but lack osteoinductive activity. Plant-derived exosomes carry miRNAs, growth factors, and proteins that modulate osteogenesis, but free exosomes suffer from poor stability, limited targeting, and low bioavailability in vivo. We developed a 3D GelMA hydrogel loaded with Epimedium-derived exosomes (“GelMA@Exo”) to improve exosome retention, stability, and sustained release. Its effects on MC3T3-E1 preosteoblasts—including proliferation, osteogenic differentiation, migration, and senescence—were evaluated via in vitro assays. Angiogenic potential was assessed using HUVECs. Underlying mechanisms were examined at transcriptomic and protein levels to elucidate GelMA@Exo’s therapeutic osteogenesis actions. GelMA@Exo exhibited sustained exosome release, enhancing exosome retention and cellular uptake. In vitro, GelMA@Exo markedly boosted MC3T3-E1 proliferation, migration, and mineralized nodule formation, while reducing senescence markers and promoting angiogenesis in HUVECs. Mechanistically, GelMA@Exo upregulated key osteogenic markers (RUNX2, TGF-β1, Osterix, COL1A1, ALPL) and activated the PI3K/Akt pathway. Transcriptomic data confirmed global upregulation of osteogenesis-related genes and bone-regeneration pathways. This study presents a GelMA hydrogel functionalized with plant-derived exosomes, which synergistically provides osteoinductive stimuli and structural support. The GelMA@Exo platform offers a versatile strategy for localized delivery of natural bioactive molecules and a promising approach for bone tissue engineering. Our findings provide strong experimental evidence for the translational potential of plant-derived exosomes in regenerative medicine. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Cell Proliferation and Division)

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27 pages, 414 KiB

Open AccessReview

Contractions of Wigner’s Little Groups as Limiting Procedures

by Sibel Başkal, Young S. Kim and Marilyn E. Noz

Symmetry 2025, 17(8), 1257; https://doi.org/10.3390/sym17081257 (registering DOI) - 7 Aug 2025

Abstract

Wigner’s little groups are the subgroups of the Poincaré group whose transformations leave the four-momentum of a relativistic particle invariant. The little group for a massive particle is SO(3)-like, whereas for a massless particle, it is E(2)-like. Multiple approaches to group contractions are discussed. It is shown that the Lie algebra of the E(2)-like little group for massless particles can be obtained from the SO(3) and from the SO(2, 1) group by boosting to the infinite-momentum limit. It is also shown that it is possible to obtain the generators of the E(2)-like and cylindrical groups from those of SO(3) as well as from those of SO(2, 1) by using the squeeze transformation. The contraction of the Lorentz group SO(3, 2) to the Poincaré group is revisited. As physical examples, two applications are chosen from classical optics. The first shows the contraction of a light ray from a spherical transparent surface to a straight line. The second shows that the focusing of the image in a camera can be formulated by the implementation of the focal condition to the [ABCD] matrix of paraxial optics, which can be regarded as a limiting procedure. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Symmetry and Lie Algebras)

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11 pages, 251 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Implementation of the Memory Support System for Individuals with Mild Cognitive Impairment: A Feasibility Survey Study

by Suraj Brar, Mirou Jaana, Octavio A. Santos, Nicholas Kassabri, Lisa Sweet, Frank Knoefel, Melanie Chandler, Atul Jaiswal and Neil W. Thomas

J. Dement. Alzheimer's Dis. 2025, 2(3), 26; https://doi.org/10.3390/jdad2030026 (registering DOI) - 7 Aug 2025

Abstract

Background/Objectives: Mild Cognitive Impairment (MCI), a condition between normal aging and dementia, is characterized by cognitive changes that do not significantly affect instrumental activities of daily living. The Memory Support System (MSS), an evidence-based behavioral intervention developed by the Mayo Clinic, has been shown to aid those living with MCI and their support partners in coping with cognitive challenges. However, the MSS has not been offered clinically within the Canadian context. Therefore, we conducted a study assessing the feasibility of the MSS from the perspectives of individuals living with MCI and their support partners. Methods: Participants from an institutional registry of research participants, patients, and support partners at a memory clinic, as well as members of a local Dementia Society, were approached to complete an online or paper version of a survey assessing feasibility dimensions. Responses were compared between and within groups for differences in mean scores and associations between linked binary choice response questions. Results: A total of 77 responses were received; 39 surveys were completed by participants with MCI, and 38 by support partners. Respondents found the MSS to be acceptable and practical. On average, participants thought it would be more difficult to train in using the MSS than support partners. Both groups expressed interest in the intervention. On average, participants with MCI and support partners preferred virtual MSS training to in-person and indicated more interest in participating in training over six weeks as compared to two weeks. Conclusions: Flexibility in duration and format when offering the MSS are important considerations when offering the intervention as part of a clinical program. Future research should evaluate cost-effectiveness (e.g., financial, staff resources, etc.) of the MSS approach if it were to be institutionalized in the Ontario healthcare system. Full article

21 pages, 1727 KiB

Open AccessReview

Immune Evasion in Head and Neck Squamous Cell Carcinoma: Roles of Cancer-Associated Fibroblasts, Immune Checkpoints, and TP53 Mutations in the Tumor Microenvironment

by Chung-Che Tsai, Yi-Chiung Hsu, Tin-Yi Chu, Po-Chih Hsu and Chan-Yen Kuo

Cancers 2025, 17(15), 2590; https://doi.org/10.3390/cancers17152590 (registering DOI) - 7 Aug 2025

Abstract

Head and neck squamous cell carcinoma (HNSCC) is a highly aggressive malignancy characterized by complex interactions within the tumor microenvironment (TME) that facilitate immune evasion and tumor progression. The TME consists of diverse cellular components, including cancer-associated fibroblasts, immune and endothelial cells, and extracellular matrix elements, that collectively modulate tumor growth, metastasis, and resistance to therapy. Immune evasion in HNSCC is orchestrated through multiple mechanisms, including the suppression of cytotoxic T lymphocytes, recruitment of immunosuppressive cells, such as regulatory T and myeloid-derived suppressor cells, and upregulation of immune checkpoint molecules (e.g., PD-1/PD-L1 and CTLA-4). Natural killer (NK) cells, which play a crucial role in anti-tumor immunity, are often dysfunctional within the HNSCC TME due to inhibitory signaling and metabolic constraints. Additionally, endothelial cells contribute to tumor angiogenesis and immune suppression, further exacerbating disease progression. Recent advancements in immunotherapy, particularly immune checkpoint inhibitors and NK cell-based strategies, have shown promise in restoring anti-tumor immunity. Moreover, TP53 mutations, frequently observed in HNSCC, influence tumor behavior and therapeutic responses, highlighting the need for personalized treatment approaches. This review provides a comprehensive analysis of the molecular and cellular mechanisms governing immune evasion in HNSCC with a focus on novel therapeutic strategies aimed at improving patient outcomes. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Oral Cancer: Prevention and Early Detection (2nd Edition))

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20 pages, 813 KiB

Open AccessReview

Exploring Design Thinking Methodologies: A Comprehensive Analysis of the Literature, Outstanding Practices, and Their Linkage to Sustainable Development Goals

by Matilde Martínez Casanovas

Sustainability 2025, 17(15), 7142; https://doi.org/10.3390/su17157142 (registering DOI) - 6 Aug 2025

Abstract

Design Thinking (DT) has emerged as a relevant methodology for addressing global challenges aligned with the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). This study presents a systematic literature review, conducted following PRISMA 2020 guidelines, which analyzes 42 peer-reviewed publications from 2013 to 2023. Through inductive content analysis, 10 core DT principles—such as empathy, iteration, user-centeredness, and systems thinking—I identified and thematically mapped to specific SDGs, including goals related to health, education, innovation, and climate action. The study also presents five real-world cases from diverse sectors such as technology, healthcare, and urban planning, illustrating how DT has been applied to address practical challenges aligned with the SDGs. However, the review identifies persistent gaps in the field: the lack of standardized evaluation frameworks, limited integration across SDG domains, and weak adaptation of ethical and contextual considerations, particularly in vulnerable communities. As a response, this paper recommends the adoption of structured impact assessment tools (e.g., Cities2030, Responsible Design Thinking), integration of design justice principles, and the development of participatory, iterative ecosystems for innovation. By offering both conceptual synthesis and applied insights, this article positions Design Thinking as a strategic and systemic approach for driving sustainable transformation aligned with the 2030 Agenda. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Sustainable Education and Approaches)

30 pages, 2190 KiB

Open AccessReview

Systematic Review of the State of Knowledge About Açaí-Do-Amazonas (Euterpe precatoria Mart., Arecaceae)

by Sabrina Yasmin Nunes da Rocha, Maria Julia Ferreira, Charles R. Clement and Ricardo Lopes

Plants 2025, 14(15), 2439; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants14152439 - 6 Aug 2025

Abstract

Euterpe precatoria Mart. is an increasingly important palm for subsistence and income generation in central and western Amazonia with growing demand for its fruit pulp, which is an alternative source of açaí juice for domestic and international markets. This study synthesizes current knowledge on its systematics, ecology, fruit production in natural populations, fruit quality, uses, population management, and related areas, identifying critical research gaps. A systematic literature survey was conducted across databases including Web of Science, Scopus, Scielo, CAPES, and Embrapa. Of 1568 studies referencing Euterpe, 273 focused on E. precatoria, with 90 addressing priority themes. Genetic diversity studies suggest the E. precatoria may represent a complex of species. Its population abundance varies across habitats: the highest variability occurs in terra firme, followed by baixios and várzeas. Várzeas exhibit greater productivity potential, with more bunches per plant and higher fruit weight than baixios; no production data exist for terra firme. Additionally, E. precatoria has higher anthocyanin content than E. oleracea, the primary commercial açaí species. Management of natural populations and cultivation practices are essential for sustainable production; however, studies in these fields are still limited. The information is crucial to inform strategies aiming to promote the sustainable production of the species. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Plant Systematics, Taxonomy, Nomenclature and Classification)

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32 pages, 41108 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Novel Medical Image Encryption Algorithm Based on High-Dimensional Memristor Chaotic System with Extended Josephus-RNA Hybrid Mechanism

by Yixiao Wang, Yutong Li, Zhenghong Yu, Tianxian Zhang and Xiangliang Xu

Symmetry 2025, 17(8), 1255; https://doi.org/10.3390/sym17081255 - 6 Aug 2025

Abstract

Conventional image encryption schemes struggle to meet the high security demands of medical images due to their large data volume, strong pixel correlation, and structural redundancy. To address these challenges, we propose a grayscale medical image encryption algorithm based on a novel 5-D memristor chaotic system. The algorithm integrates a Symmetric L-type Josephus Spiral Scrambling (SLJSS) module and a Dynamic Codon-based Multi-RNA Diffusion (DCMRD) module to enhance spatial decorrelation and diffusion complexity. Simulation results demonstrate that the proposed method achieves near-ideal entropy (e.g., 7.9992), low correlation (e.g., 0.0043), and high robustness (e.g., NPCR: 99.62%, UACI: 33.45%) with time complexity of

O (11 M N)

, confirming its effectiveness and efficiency for medical image protection. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Symmetry in Chaos Theory and Applications)

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19 pages, 1090 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Inbound Truck Scheduling for Workload Balancing in Cross-Docking Terminals

by Younghoo Noh, Seokchan Lee, Jeongyoon Hong, Jeongeum Kim and Sung Won Cho

Mathematics 2025, 13(15), 2533; https://doi.org/10.3390/math13152533 - 6 Aug 2025

Abstract

The rapid growth of e-commerce and advances in information and communication technologies have placed increasing pressure on last-mile delivery companies to enhance operational productivity. As investments in logistics infrastructure require long-term planning, maximizing the efficiency of existing terminal operations has become a critical priority. This study proposes a mathematical model for inbound truck scheduling that simultaneously minimizes truck waiting times and balances workload across temporary inventory storage located at outbound chutes in cross-docking terminals. The model incorporates a dynamic rescheduling strategy that updates the assignment of inbound trucks in real time, based on the latest terminal conditions. Numerical experiments, based on real operational data, demonstrate that the proposed approach significantly outperforms conventional strategies such as First-In First-Out (FIFO) and Random assignment in terms of both load balancing and truck turnaround efficiency. In particular, the proposed model improves workload balance by approximately 10% and 12% compared to the FIFO and Random strategies, respectively, and it reduces average truck waiting time by 17% and 18%, thereby contributing to more efficient workflow and alleviating bottlenecks. The findings highlight the practical potential of the proposed strategy for improving the responsiveness and efficiency of parcel distribution centers operating under fixed infrastructure constraints. Future research may extend the proposed approach by incorporating realistic operational factors, such as cargo heterogeneity, uncertain arrivals, and terminal shutdowns due to limited chute storage. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Mathematical Modeling and Optimization for Business Analytics)

20 pages, 2614 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Porphyrin-Modified Polyethersulfone Ultrafiltration Membranes for Enhanced Bacterial Inactivation and Filtration Performance

by Funeka Matebese, Nonkululeko Malomane, Meladi L. Motloutsi, Richard M. Moutloali and Muthumuni Managa

Membranes 2025, 15(8), 239; https://doi.org/10.3390/membranes15080239 - 6 Aug 2025

Abstract

Municipal wastewaters pose a severe risk to the environment and human health when discharged untreated. This is due to their high content of pathogens, such as viruses and bacteria, which can cause diseases like cholera. Herein, the research and development of porphyrin-modified polyethersulfone (PES) ultrafiltration (UF) membranes was conducted to improve bacterial inactivation in complex municipal wastewater and enhance the fouling resistance and filtration performance. The synthesis and fabrication of porphyrin nanofillers and the resultant membrane characteristics were studied. The incorporation of porphyrin-based nanofillers improved the membrane’s hydrophilicity, morphology, and flux (247 Lm⁻² h⁻¹), with the membrane contact angle (CA) decreasing from 90° to ranging between 58° and 50°. The membrane performance was monitored for its flux, antifouling properties, reusability potential, municipal wastewater, and humic acid. The modified membranes demonstrated an effective application in wastewater treatment, achieving notable antibacterial activity, particularly under light exposure. The In-BP@SW/PES membrane demonstrated effective antimicrobial photodynamic effects against both Gram-positive S. aureus and Gram-negative E. coli. It achieved at least a 3-log reduction in bacterial viability, meeting Food and Drug Administration (FDA) standards for efficient antimicrobial materials. Among the variants tested, membranes modified with In-PB@SW nanofillers exhibited superior antifouling properties with flux recovery ratios (FRRs) of 78.9% for the humic acid (HA) solution and 85% for the municipal wastewater (MWW), suggesting a strong potential for long-term filtration use. These results highlight the promise of porphyrin-functionalized membranes as multifunctional tools in advanced water treatment technologies. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Membrane and Other Innovative Technologies for Water Purification: Design, Development, and Application)

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15 pages, 6966 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Concise Grid-Based Model Revealing the Temporal Dynamics in Indoor Infection Risk

by Pengcheng Zhao and Xiaohong Zheng

Buildings 2025, 15(15), 2786; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15152786 - 6 Aug 2025

Abstract

Determining the transmission routes of pathogens in indoor environments is challenging, with most studies limited to specific case analyses and pilot experiments. When pathogens are instantaneously released by a patient in an indoor environment, the peak infection risk may not occur immediately but may instead appear at a specific moment during the pathogen’s spread. We developed a concise model to describe the temporal crest of infection risk. The model incorporates the transmission and degradation characteristics of aerosols and surface particles to predict infection risks via air and surface routes. Only four real-world outbreaks met the criteria for validating this phenomenon. Based on the available data, norovirus is likely to transmit primarily via surface touch (i.e., the fomite route). In contrast, crests of infection risk were not observed in outbreaks of respiratory diseases (e.g., SARS-CoV-2), suggesting a minimal probability of surface transmission in such cases. The new model can serve as a preliminary indicator for identifying different indoor pathogen transmission routes (e.g., food, air, or fomite). Further analyses of pathogens’ transmission routes require additional evidence. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Development of Indoor Environment Comfort)

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