Search Results (72)

Since the establishment of diplomatic relations between China and South Korea in 1992, research on Korean Buddhism in mainland China has undergone more than three decades of accumulation and has developed a relatively comprehensive research framework; its methodological characteristics, however, have not yet been subjected to systematic examination. This article offers a historiographical and methodological evaluation of that field rather than a systematic bibliometric review. Drawing principally on Chinese-language literature from the CNKI database, supplemented by Korean-language publications from the RISS and KCI databases, it examines journal articles, theses, monographs, and edited conference volumes published between 1992 and 2025, selecting individual works for detailed discussion according to their scholarly influence, thematic coverage, and methodological significance. Using contemporaneous scholarship from the Korean academic community as an external point of reference, it conducts a cross-linguistic evaluation of the developmental trajectory of the field. The findings indicate that this field has made distinctive contributions in the excavation of Chinese-language historical sources, the construction of the history of bilateral exchanges, and the study of state–monastic relations. At the same time, the long-standing absence of substantive dialogue with Korean academia, the overall lack of research on material religion, and the systematic neglect of gender perspectives constitute major bottlenecks constraining its further development. Through methodological refinement and the institutional construction of Sino–Korean academic reciprocity, this field may transcend a purely bilateral framework and offer original contributions to the study of comparative religious history in East Asia, as well as to a broader comparative programme encompassing other scholarly traditions. Full article

Chinese translations of the Bible are an important case in the dissemination of texts across cultures and religions. One of its core challenges lies in how to convey the textual personification of God in the Bible through translation within the context of traditional Chinese thought. Through a longitudinal empirical analysis of Jingjiao (景教) texts, Catholic translations from the Ming and Qing dynasties, and the Protestant Chinese Union Version, this article proposes an interpretive framework of “dual mediation,” revealing how Confucian and Daoist thought interact through distinct cultural pathways to influence the representation and local reconfiguration of the divine personhood. Through its concept of “naturalization,” Daoist thought removes the element of coercive will from the expression of divine action, emphasizing instead the process of spontaneous generation from within. Confucianism, on the other hand, through a process of “ethicalization,” relies on the relational network and moral system of the “father-son” to transform God into an educational agent endowed with personal characteristics and moral responsibility. Through these two pathways, God is not only expressed in Chinese translations as a Revealer, Creator, and Redeemer, but His personhood is also adapted during the translation process to align with the divine subject within the Chinese intellectual system and ethical order. Based on this, the “dual mediation” framework presented in this article offers a new perspective for understanding cultural adaptation and theological expression in the translation of the Chinese Bible. Full article

This article argues that the reconstruction of modern knowledge in late Qing China was not merely the result of the passive importation of Western disciplinary categories, nor simply the natural collapse of the traditional Sibu 四部 system. Focusing on Xia Zengyou 夏曾佑 (1863–1924), it shows how Buddhism, especially Mahayana Buddhist reading traditions and classificatory logic, functioned as an indigenous epistemological resource in the reordering of knowledge. Through an analysis of Xia’s personal reading lists and handwritten catalogues, including Shengping Suoxue 生平所學 and his Handwritten Catalogue of Collected Books 手抄藏書書目, this study demonstrates that Xia organized his books in the sequence of Buddhist works, newly translated Western works, and indigenous Chinese texts. This arrangement reversed the Confucian-centered hierarchy of the Sibu system, in which the jing 經 category occupied the privileged position. By comparing Xia’s classificatory practice with those of Shen Zengzhi 沈曾植 (1850–1922), Liang Qichao 梁啟超 (1873–1929), Xu Weize 徐維則 (1867–1919), and Yang Renshan 楊仁山 (1837–1911), the article argues that Xia did not simply adopt Western systems of knowledge. Rather, he used Buddhist textual order, cross-sectarian Mahayana learning, and Buddhist epistemological assumptions to relativize classical authority, accommodate Western learning, and construct a new reading horizon. Buddhism in this case was not only a matter of personal faith or religious revival; it became a conceptual and classificatory tool through which modern knowledge could be made intelligible. The article therefore contributes to the study of religion and modernity by showing that the formation of modern Chinese knowledge was not a purely secular process, but a religiously mediated transformation. Full article

The Neo-Calvinist Johan Herman Bavinck was one of the most significant missionaries of the mid-twentieth century in the Reformed tradition. Bavinck considered the question of the status of non-Christian religion and religious consciousness the most pressing issue for missionary thought and practice. This article offers a text-driven account of Johan Herman Bavinck’s theology of religions. It argues that Bavinck treated non-Christian religion as a culpable yet always partial suppression of God’s universal self-disclosure, in which religious systems cohere around what he calls vague truths while lacking the determinate knowledge of God given in special revelation. Attention to his distinction between systems and persons clarifies how he believed missionary encounter could combine judgement with humility, as the Christian confronts unbelief while recognising the church’s own tendency toward pseudo-religion. The article situates Bavinck’s account within Reformed Augustinianism and eclecticism, such as in the use of Freudian psychology in exegesis. It then provides a preliminary application of Bavinck’s thought to select issues in Chinese Christianity as part of recent scholarly attention to the prospects of Sino-Reformed theology. Full article

In the nineteenth century, the emergence of Western Buddhist studies generated sustained debate over nirvana, one of the central doctrines of Buddhism. The British Protestant missionary Joseph Edkins actively participated in this intellectual discussion and developed a distinctive interpretation of the concept. Early in his writings, Edkins largely followed the prevailing tendency in European scholarship to interpret nirvana through a philosophical framework that equated it with nihilism. However, through extensive engagement with Chinese Buddhist texts and direct interactions with Chinese Buddhists, he gradually revised this view. Approaching the issue from the perspectives of common sense and religion, Edkins argued that nirvana, as understood in Chinese Buddhism, retained a form of practical realism rather than complete annihilation. Although he ultimately rejected the idea that nirvana could provide genuine salvation, Edkins discerned the Western Heaven (Pure Land) within his own construction of a Buddhist theory of death and interpreted it as a potential preparation for Christianity. By situating Northern Buddhism within a broader biblical narrative, he sought to reconcile tensions between nirvana and other Buddhist conceptions of the afterlife, as well as the wider doctrinal tensions between Buddhism and Christianity. As an intermediary in Sino-Western intellectual exchange, Edkins’ creative interpretation of nirvana not only reflects the imprint of Western intellectual traditions but also illuminates the complex negotiations between Christianity and Buddhism, and between faith and reason, in the nineteenth-century construction of Buddhist knowledge. Full article

This paper focuses on the early Qing monk-painter Hongren 弘仁, systematically exploring the pathways through which the Chan Buddhist “emptiness contemplation” is manifested in his landscape paintings. As a representative monk-painter, Hongren produced works that profoundly embody the Chan contemplation of emptiness, yielding a singular style defined by austere coldness, minimalist simplicity, and profound quietude. Transcending conventional stylistic descriptions in art history and essentialist philosophical deductions, this study adopts a comprehensive empirical approach that integrates poetry, calligraphy, painting, and seals (shi-shu-hua-yin 诗书画印). By adopting an interdisciplinary perspective of philosophy, religion, and art history, this study argues that Hongren’s landscapes are not merely subjective emotional expressions or aesthetic pursuits; rather, they constitute a visual extension and a spiritual externalization of his emptiness contemplation. Through a multi-layered analysis of his form, brushwork, composition, and artistic conception, combined with the mutual corroboration of poetic inscriptions on paintings and textual inscriptions on seals, this paper reveals how the Chan philosophy of “emptiness contemplation” is reflected within his artistic language. While Hongren’s style is the cumulative result of various factors such as the Ming-Qing dynasty transition, his personal life, the inheritance of painting techniques, and the regional culture of Mount Huang, this paper specifically takes Chan thought as its analytical starting point, focusing on its unique expression in his work. Hongren’s path of “Painting-Chan” (hua chan 画禅) not only infused early Qing painting with a sublime spiritual power but also provides a vital religious exegesis of the deep-seated Chinese tradition of “Technique Ascending to the Dao” (ji jin yu dao 技进于道). Full article

Within Daoism, a specific genre of biographical narratives emerged about Tao Hongjing (456–536 CE) and Sun Simiao (581–682 CE). These stories claim that the two Daoist physicians recorded the use of animal-derived medicines in their medical works, a practice that inflicted harm on living beings. As a result, they suffered karmic retribution that hindered their paths to immortality. This genre directly highlights the precept dilemma faced by Daoist physicians when using animal-derived medicines. Daoism takes “non-killing” as its fundamental precept, and reinforces the sanctity of the killing taboo through the doctrines of karmic retribution and Inherited Retribution (Cheng fu 承負). However, the widespread and often irreplaceable use of animal-derived medicines in ancient Chinese medical practice forced Daoist physicians to confront the ethical dilemma of “killing a life to save a life”. Based on the doctrinal foundation of the Daoist precept of non-killing, the use of animal-derived medicines by Daoist physicians faced at least three obstacles: (1) conflict with the Daoist thought of Valuing Life; (2) deterrence from the concept of karmic retribution; (3) the sense of guilt experienced by Daoist physicians themselves. Correspondingly, Daoist doctrine also developed adaptive interpretations, which left room for contingency in the use of animal-derived medicines by Daoist physicians. This adaptive approach reflects the relatively tolerant, practice-oriented characteristics of Daoist doctrinal interpretation. It also provides traditional intellectual resources for addressing animal ethics issues in religion and medicine. Full article

In modern China, the introduction of Science from the West posed a significant challenge to Chinese Buddhism, which was already in a state of decline. The intellectual currents of the New Culture Movement (1915–1923) and the subsequent anti-religious movement, which initially targeted Christianity but expanded to include all religions, subjected Buddhism to severe criticism and pressure for reform. In response, Buddhist intellectuals developed the idea of “Buddhism being scientific” as a defensive strategy. On the one hand, they direct parallels between Buddhist concepts, such as the microscopic world described in scriptures, and modern scientific discoveries like microbiology and the theory of relativity, aiming to demonstrate Buddhism’s empirical validity and superiority. On the other hand, they argued that Buddhism could supplement the shortcomings of science, particularly in addressing spiritual and moral needs, thus positioning it as a necessary complement to a purely materialistic worldview. Under the dominant influence of the scientific paradigm, Buddhism underwent a profound academic transformation. Its teachings were systematically integrated into modern disciplinary frameworks, such as Buddhist history, philosophy, and psychology, shifting from a primarily faith-based practice to an object of scholarly study. This scientization process stripped many traditional elements of their sacred character, reinterpreting them through a rational lens and ultimately redirecting the course of modern Chinese Buddhism. Full article

In the history as well as historiography of Chinese Buddhism, the tradition has often been closely associated with death-related cultural practices and ideas, an association that has frequently carried negative connotations. Early twentieth-century reformers such as Taixu famously criticized Buddhism as a religion of ghosts and funerals and sought to redirect Mahāyāna Buddhism toward engagement with an urban, modernizing society. Contemporary Taiwanese Buddhists have realized many aspects of this socially engaged vision. Yet concern with death remains deeply embedded in Buddhist life. Far from standing in contradiction to social engagement, this concern has become one of its central expressions, most visibly in the emergence of modern Buddhist palliative care. Focusing on the writings of the scholar-monk Shi Huimin, this article examines the development of Buddhist palliative care in Taiwan in response to a secular, multireligious, and rapidly aging society, with primary attention to Huimin’s conceptual work. Rather than treating death in isolation, Huimin situates dying within a broader ethical horizon that links good death to good aging, good living, and community formation. Through his reinterpretation of the Five Śīlas and his notion of a Community Pure Land, he extends prevailing concerns with dying well toward a more comprehensive reflection on everyday moral cultivation, healthy lifestyles, and communal responsibility. In this sense, the study reads Buddhist palliative care as a site that “provincializes” dominant Euro-American frameworks of spiritual and palliative care, highlighting their particular historical and Christian-inflected origins while tracing how they are reconfigured and made productive in a multireligious, secular context. By foregrounding Huimin’s conceptual contributions, this study highlights how palliative and spiritual care are localized and reworked within Taiwanese Buddhism, connecting end-of-life care to broader questions of life, aging, and community well-being. Full article

By analyzing the devotional practices at Qinglong Temple in Chaozhou, this article illuminates a symbolic circuit in Chinese folk religion wherein sincerity is materialized through reverent offerings to secure divine reciprocity. It further explores the ethical logic, symbolic mechanisms, and processes of social construction underlying the pattern. More broadly, the vibrant ritual life at Qinglong Temple demonstrates that far from being a relic of the past, such economies of sincere exchange are a vital and adaptive mechanism through which folk traditions negotiate their place and thrive within the complexities of modern China. The study reveals that Chinese folk religion operates as a dynamic system of practices embedded in everyday rituals, emotional ethics, and social relationships. Its legitimacy arises not from abstract doctrine but from ritual performance, moral expression, and affective interaction. The article elucidates how monetary offerings, when grounded in sincerity, are reinterpreted as symbolic gifts and subsequently transformed into symbolic capital through practices such as temple donations and vow fulfillment. While resisting full assimilation into market rationality, folk religion simultaneously engages official structures to construct a hybrid religious economy that reinforces communal ethics and sustains transcendent relationships through public ritual and collective devotion. Full article

This paper takes the interaction between late-Ming Jesuits and Chinese City God (chenghuang, 城隍) worship as a case study, employing the “Great Tradition/Little Tradition” framework to examine the confrontation between “humans-becoming-gods” and “God-creating-angels”. It argues that the Confucian Great Tradition integrated popular beliefs through using the divine way to implement moral instruction (shendao shejiao, 神道設教), maintaining state–religion unity and a monistic cosmology. By contrast, Catholicism, centered on monotheism and a transcendent God, reallocated mystical power from imperial and local deities to the Christian God, thus implicitly reconstructing traditional Chinese knowledge systems under an apparent compromise. The article concludes that Catholicism in late Ming China signified not merely religious transmission but also the penetration of a transcendent God-concept and a dualistic cosmology dividing the otherworldly from the this-worldly into China’s this-worldly monistic cosmology, thereby clarifying the intellectual tensions revealed by the Jesuit encounter with Chinese cosmology. Full article

Religious clothing serves as the external manifestation of religious culture, and its evolutionary process not only reflects the developmental trajectory of religion but also demonstrates cultural exchange and social transformation in specific historical periods. This study focuses on the localization and evolution of Chinese Buddhism monks’ robes as its research subject. Through analyzing historical documents, archaeological materials, and artistic works, it explores the transformation process from Indian Kasaya to Chinese Haiqing 海青 (Chinese Buddhist Ceremonial Robe) and its cultural implications. The research findings reveal that the localization process of Chinese Buddhism monks’ robes exhibits characteristics of gradual Cultural Adaptation: while maintaining the core of Buddhist doctrine, it achieved organic integration with traditional Chinese culture through systematic reconstruction of material forms. This is specifically manifested in three aspects: formal adaptation responding to environmental constraints, the integration of craftsmanship and materials embodying cultural dialogue, and the color hierarchy system reflecting the dynamic interplay between secular power and religious authority. This process facilitated the reconstruction of monks’ multidimensional Identity Reconstruction—forming a new balance model among religious transcendence, cultural belonging, and social participation. This study provides a theoretical framework for understanding the internal logic of religious localization and the adaptive mechanisms of Cross-cultural Communication. Full article

The longevity of popular religions in China is primarily attributed to their strong adaptability. This study uses online ethnography to examine the Pageant on Immortals event in Changle, which became a popular topic on the Chinese Internet in February 2024, to explore the identity transformation of popular religious inheritors and innovations in religious rituals. This study contributes to the research on the diversity of Chinese religious cultures by addressing the question of what emotions young people in an atheistic society hold toward deities like “Prince Zhao,” and how are these emotions generated? Here the Pageant on Immortals event, the “Deities,” who traditionally held a subsidiary position to the main god, due to changes in statue-making styles and gaps in mythological narratives, resonates with the “daily superstition” practices of contemporary Chinese youth. This shift has led participants to treat the deities as idols, and the organizers have transitioned from traditional roles of religious merchants or ritual specialists to seeing themselves as the “dolls’ masters.” However, these changes and innovations present challenges for the transmission of faith. Full article

This study examines the figure of the baksı as a living reflection of ancient Turkic belief systems in contemporary Kazakh culture. The baksı, whose earliest attestations in Old Uyghur Turkic derive from the Chinese po-shih (“scholar, teacher”), historically denoted a wide range of roles, including religious guide, scholar, scribe, healer, bard, and shaman. Employing an interdisciplinary methodology that integrates philological, lexicographic, folkloric, and ethnographic perspectives, the research traces the semantic development of the term across Turkic and Mongolic traditions, its uses in historical texts, and its representations in Kazakh oral literature such as proverbs, idioms, epics, and fairy tales. The findings show that while the baksı has been idealised as a healer, sage, and spiritual mediator, it has also been depicted with suspicion as a deceiver or figure associated with jinn, particularly in the post-Islamic period. Ethnographic insights further reveal that becoming a baksı involves a sacred calling, initiation rituals, and distinctive clothing and performance practices, situating the figure at the intersection of religion, medicine, and art. The study concludes that the baksı is not only a historical heritage but also a dynamic cultural institution, mediating between past and present, nature and society, and continuing to shape Kazakh identity today. Full article

Adopting the theoretical traditions and methodological approaches of Chinese religious studies, this paper systematically reviews the scholarly development, theoretical contributions, and methodological characteristics of research on Korean Christianity conducted by Chinese scholars. Through an in-depth analysis of the academic literature spanning the past five decades, the study unveils the developmental logic, theoretical innovations, and prospective research directions within this field. It finds that Chinese scholarship has progressed through distinct phases—from preliminary exploration to diversified inquiry—marked by an increasingly expansive academic vision. Core findings include: in-depth interpretations of mechanisms underlying the indigenization of foreign religions, nuanced examinations of the complex interplay between religion and socio-cultural dynamics, and the construction of theoretical models for cross-cultural religious transmission. The study also highlights current methodological limitations and proposes future research strategies such as interdisciplinary integration, empirical approaches, and theoretical innovation. These efforts aim to offer fresh perspectives for the study of religious history in East Asia. Full article