Search Results (881)

This study examines the evolution and integration of Buddhist architecture in East Asia and emphasizes the preservation of indigenous building traditions by adapting pre-Buddhist architectural typologies, vernacular construction techniques, and localized worship practices. In addition, this study highlights the adaptive transformation of Indian Buddhist structures as they incorporate regional architectural forms, resulting in distinct monumental styles that had a profound symbolic significance. By introducing the concept of a cosmopolitan attitude, it underscores the dynamic coexistence and reciprocal influence of universalized and vernacular architectural traditions. The findings highlight the interplay between cultural universality and particularity, illustrating how architectural meaning and intention define the uniqueness of structures beyond their stylistic similarities. This study demonstrates that even when architectural forms appear similar, their function and underlying intent must be considered to fully comprehend their historical and cultural significance. Full article

This article examines the evolution and potential cross-cultural adaptations of the “Goddess of the Flaming Mouth”, Jvālāmukhī (Skt.) or Kha ‘bar ma (Tib.), in Indic and Tibetan traditions. A minor figure in medieval Hindu Tantras, Jvālāmukhī is today best known through her tangible manifestation as natural flames in a West Himalayan temple complex in the valley of Kangra, Himachal Pradesh, India. The gap between her sparse portrayal in Tantric texts and her enduring presence at this local “seat of power” (śakti pīṭha) raises questions regarding her historical development and sectarian affiliations. To address these questions, we examine mentions of Jvālāmukhī’s Tibetan counterpart, Kha ‘bar ma, across a wide range of textual sources: canonical Buddhist texts, original Tibetan works of the Bön and Buddhist traditions, and texts on sacred geography. Regarded as a queen of ghost spirits (pretas) and field protector (kṣetrapāla) in Buddhist sources, her portrayal in Bön texts contain archaic motifs that hint at autochthonous and/or non-Buddhist origins. The assessment of Indic material in conjunction with Tibetan texts point to possible transformations of the goddess across these culturally proximate Himalayan settings. In presenting and contextualizing these transitions, this article contributes critical data to ongoing efforts to map the development, adaptation, and localization of Tantric deities along the Indo-Tibetan interface. Full article

Lion Grove was established in 1342 during the Yuan Dynasty and is one of the four most famous classical gardens in China. It was recognized as a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 2000. Although Lion Grove is now regarded as a private garden representing the culture of Confucian scholars, it was originally a Chan Buddhist garden during its inception in the Yuan Dynasty. This study examines the natural landscapes of Lion Grove at its inception, focusing on four main aspects: the philosophy of nature, planning intent, creators, and the philosophical ideas they represent. Key findings include the following: Firstly, Lion Grove’s attitude towards nature is rooted in China’s indigenous culture, making it both a physical expression of Chan philosophy and a space reflecting the scholar–bureaucrats’ vision of an ideal landscape. Secondly, from the perspective of landscape planning, the Lion Grove of the Yuan Dynasty placed greater emphasis on natural elements compared to its modern counterpart, with rock landscapes serving as the core element throughout the garden. Thirdly, hermitic philosophy emerged as a significant cultural theme alongside Chan Buddhism during the Yuan Dynasty. Fourthly, the landscape elements of Lion Grove symbolize Chan Buddhist wisdom and the hermit’s idealism, with poetry playing a key role in conveying these cultural ideals, preserving the site’s early philosophical significance. Full article

This paper examines the philosophy of language in The Platform Sutra of the Sixth Patriarch (六祖壇經), demonstrating its centrality to Zen Buddhism and Buddhist sinicization. The sutra emphasizes the ineffability of ultimate truth (至道無言) and the principle that words falter in encapsulating the Dao (言語道斷), framing language as a provisional “raft” (筏) that must be instrumentalized yet transcended through a dialectic of employing and abandoning (用離辯證). It ontologically grounds this view in Buddha-nature’s (佛性) pre-linguistic essence, advocating transcending reliance on words and letters (不假文字) while strategically deploying language to dismantle its own authority. Historically, this constituted a revolt against Tang scholasticism’s textual fetishism. The text adopts a dynamic dialectic, neither clinging to nor rejecting language, exemplified by Huineng’s awakening through the Diamond Sutra, where recitation catalyzes internal insight. Operationally, it utilizes negational discourse, the “Two Paths Mutually Condition” method (二道相因) embedded in the “Twelve Pairs of Dharmic Forms” (法相語言十二對) in particular, to systematically deconstruct dualisms, while promoting embodied unity of speech, mind, and action (口念心行) to critique empty recitation. Ultimately, the sutra orchestrates language as a self-subverting medium: balancing acknowledgment of its limitations with pragmatic instrumentality, it presents an Eastern paradigm where language actively disrupts conceptual fetters to facilitate direct insight into Buddha-nature, reframing it as a dynamic catalyst for “illuminating the mind and seeing one’s nature” (明心見性). Full article

In the Chan Buddhism koan (gong’an 公案) tradition, the act of “slaying the snake” functions as a signature gesture imbued with complex, historically layered cultural meanings. Rather than merely examining its motivations, this paper emphasizes tracing the semantic transformations that this motif has undergone across different historical contexts. It argues that “snake-slaying” operated variously as an imperial narrative strategy reinforcing ruling class ideology; as a form of popular resistance by commoners against flood-related disasters; as a dietary practice among aristocrats and literati seeking danyao (elixirs) 丹藥 for reclusion and transcendence; and ultimately, within the Chan tradition, as a method of spiritual cultivation whereby masters sever desires rooted in attachment to both selfhood and the Dharma. More specifically, first, as an imperial narrative logic, snake-slaying embodied exemplary power: both Liu Bang 劉邦 and Guizong 歸宗 enacted this discursive strategy, with Guizong’s legitimacy in slaying the snake deriving from the precedent set by Liu Bang. Second, as a folk strategy of demystification, snake-slaying acquired a moral aura—since the snake was perceived as malevolent force, their slaying appeared righteous and heroic. Finally, as a mode of self-cultivation among the aristocracy, snake-slaying laid the groundwork for its later internalization. In Daoism, slaying the snake was a means of cultivating the body; in Chan Buddhism, the act is elevated to a higher plane—becoming a way of cultivating the mind. This transformation unfolded naturally, as if predestined. In all cases, the internalization of the snake-slaying motif was not an overnight development: the cultural genes that preceded its appearance in the Chan tradition provided the fertile ground for its karmic maturation and discursive proliferation. Full article

This paper considers the practice of immeasurable joy (muditā) as presented in the so-called Yogalehrbuch, a seventh century Sanskrit “yoga manual” from Qïzïl, on the northern rim of the Tarim Basin. It demonstrates that the author of the text, whose purpose is to describe the journey of a yogin on the path to the awakening of a Bodhisattva, relied on some version of the *Vibhāṣā, the voluminous treatise on Buddhist metaphysics from which the Vaibhāṣika school derives its name. Identifying several parallels between the two texts, it presents a new edition of select passages of the manuscript from the preface to immeasurable joy which constitute what the text terms a theory of practice (prayoganirdeśa). On this basis, it is shown that the specific principles of Vaibhāṣika ontology and phenomenology conveyed by this theory come to be instantiated at the experiential, structural and representational levels of the practice (prayoga), which the text primarily serves to example. Full article

Japanese scholarship occupies a special place in the study of Old Uyghur philology, Central Asian history and religions on the Silk Road. The German volume edited by J. P. Laut and K. Röhrborn in 1988 provides an overview of Japanese studies of Old Uyghur Buddhism and presents some representative works published up to 1988. For publications subsequent to 1988, an appendix to Laut and K. Röhrborn’s volume by M. Ölmez can be mentioned, though it provides minimal elaboration on Buddhist publications. The present paper offers a comprehensive review of notable contributions to the study of Old Uyghur Buddhism published in Japanese in recent years, which are challenging to access for scholars unacquainted with the Japanese language. It focuses exclusively on publications released between 2000 and 2024 in Japanese, with no English translations available at the time of submission of this paper. Full article

During the 10th to 12th centuries, the Song, Liao, and Goryeo Dynasties and Japanese regimes in East Asia engaged in frequent activities of requesting and granting the Chinese Tripitaka (the Chinese Buddhist Canon), forming a distinctive diplomatic phenomenon termed “Tripitaka Diplomacy”. This paper examines the political and cultural dynamics underlying these cross-border interactions by analyzing the historical records of such activities among the polities. It also explores the multifaceted role of the Tripitaka in East Asian international relations, which transcended its religious significance to shape diplomatic strategies and power dynamics. Through this lens, this paper reveals the complexity of the East Asian international order during this period, emphasizing how the circulation of the Tripitaka served as both a cultural bridge and a tool for political negotiation. Full article

The Diamond Sutra (Vajracchedikā-Prajñāpāramitā-Sūtra) translated by the Sui Dynasty monk Dharmagupta is the fourth Chinese rendition of the Diamond Sutra. Characterized by unprecedented linguistic opacity and syntactic complexity within the history of Buddhist textual transmission, this translation’s distinctive features have attracted significant scholarly attention. This study synthesizes existing academic perspectives and employs Sanskrit–Chinese textual criticism and comparative analysis of parallel translations to conduct a granular examination of Dharmagupta’s retranslation. Our findings reveal that this text fundamentally deviates from conventional sutras designed for religious dissemination or liturgical recitation. Its defining traits, including morphological calquing of Sanskrit structures, simplified pronominal systems, and etymologically prioritized equivalence, collectively reflect a pedagogical focus characteristic of language instructional texts. Dharmagupta’s approach epitomizes a translation-as-pedagogy paradigm, with the text’s deviations from conventional norms resulting from the interplay of religious development, historical context, and translator agency. We argue that the Diamond Sutra retranslation constitutes a radical experimental paradigm in translation history, warranting re-evaluation of its significance within the broader trajectory of Buddhist textual practice. Full article

Most research on work addiction has focused on Western countries, often overlooking cultural and religious influences. This study examines work addiction in Sri Lanka, a predominantly Buddhist country, and explores whether gender and age moderate the relationship between religiosity and work addiction. A sample of 176 full-time employed Buddhists (66.5% women, mean age = 41.84 years) completed an online survey, including the International Work Addiction Scale and a self-rated religiosity measure. The prevalence of work addiction was around 10%, aligning with Western estimates. No direct link was found between religiosity and work addiction. However, age significantly moderated this relationship: among younger participants, higher religiosity was associated with lower work addiction, while in older participants it was linked to higher work addiction. Gender showed no moderating effect. These findings suggest that work addiction is prevalent even in cultural contexts emphasizing moderation and non-attachment. The age-related differences may reflect generational shifts in how religion is perceived and integrated into work life, as well as varying interpretations of Buddhist principles. This study highlights the importance of considering cultural and generational contexts when examining behavioral addictions like work addiction. Full article

This article considers the dilemma between advocating for a religion-based environmentalism in the Himalayas and recognising that the different cultural traditions in the region make a uniform religious environmentalism difficult to uphold. Conservationists often attempt to mobilise local communities for environmental protection by building on their religious and cultural beliefs. Yet, such forms of mobilisation tend to homogenise plural traditions by forcing them within a single fold. What is the way out of this dilemma? I offer some reflections, drawing on my empirical work in the Buddhist Himalayas, and focusing on the case studies of the yak and the black-necked crane respectively, two species which hold a special significance in Arunachal Pradesh, India. Examining these multispecies relations in Arunachal Pradesh reveal not only Buddhist values at work, but plural and evolving entanglements. The question, then, is not to see if the value is religious but if the value is more-than-human in its orientation, taking into account the entangled lives of human and non-human habitations. My broad argument is that an ethics of the environment need neither to be removed from religious ethics, nor enclosed by it. Rather than force environmental thought and behaviour into silos of particular religious traditions or conservation science paradigms, how can one see these as the function of plural habitations? Full article

Focusing on the Pārijāta Tree on the summit of Mount Sumeru, the centre of Asian cosmology, this study analyses its depictions and images. These include Chinese translations of Buddhist texts, the most notable depictions in the handscrolls from the Dūn Huáng and Harvard Art Museums, its representations in Japanese classical literature and early modern Japanese illustrations of Mount Sumeru. Finally, drawing from the discussions on trees in the Buddhist texts, A Forest of Pearls from the Dharma Garden [法苑珠林, Fǎ yuàn zhū lín], the study also addresses various issues surrounding tree felling, which are relevant to the current concerns of environmental protection. I argue that the Pārijāta Tree, positioned as the heavenly king of trees, holds significance as a core figure at the centre of the cosmos. The Pārijāta Tree can be said to serve as a metaphor for the supreme state pursued by Buddhist practitioners. Furthermore, this study suggests that issues related to Asian cosmology or worldviews should be pursued as important subjects in future research on environmental literature. Full article

Through an examination of his core doctrinal points, I argue that Shinran’s conception of Pure Land Buddhism (Jōdo Shinshū) should not be so readily dismissed as one that is only salvific in an otherworldly sense, with no relevance to contemporary, everyday life, nor should it be reduced to a purely ethnic form of Buddhism without any reference to its universal dimension. Through this analysis, we will find that Shinran’s adoption of a unique and honest evaluation of our inner lives through receiving the wisdom and compassion of Amida Buddha can offer people of today’s world a way to embrace a spirit of self-acceptance so that one can live with confidence, integrity, and a modest joy, despite the manifold shortcomings of the human condition. Through the radical transformation of one’s dissatisfaction and suffering, an uncontrived ethical impulse is able to emerge, accompanied by a keen awareness of deep empathy for others, leading to an existence informed by empathy instead of animosity. Full article

The Republican era of China witnessed three primary positions regarding Buddhist monastic robe reform. Taixu advocated preserving canonical forms (法服) for ritual garments while adapting regular robes (常服) to contemporary needs; Dongchu proposed diminishing ritual distinctions by establishing a tripartite hierarchical system—virtue-monk robes (德僧服), duty-monk robes (職僧服), and scholar-monk robes (學僧服); and Lengjing endorsed the full secularization of monastic robes. As a reformist leader, Taixu pursued reforms grounded in both doctrinal authenticity and contextual responsiveness. His initial advocacy for robe modifications, however, rendered him a target for traditionalists like Cihang, who conflated his measured approach with the radicalism of Dongchu’s faction. Ultimately, the broader Buddhist reform collapsed, with robe controversies serving as a critical lens into its failure. The reasons for its failure include not only wartime disruption and inadequate governmental support, but also the structural disadvantages of the reformists compared to the traditionalists, which proved decisive. This was due to the fact that the traditionalists mostly controlled monastic economies, wielded institutional authority, and commanded discursive hegemony, reinforced by lay Buddhist alignment. These debates crystallize the core tension in Buddhist modernization—the dialectic between “disenchantment” and “preservation of monastic discipline”. This dynamic of negotiated adjustment offers a vital historical framework for navigating contemporary Buddhism’s engagement with modernity. Full article

This paper explores the perspectives of Master Taixu (太虛, 1890–1947) and Master Hsing Yun (星雲, 1927–2023) on the practice of the Buddhist Five Vehicles (五乘), particularly focusing on the relationship between the Vehicles of Men and Gods (人天乘) and the Bodhisattva Vehicle (菩薩乘). Master Taixu advocated “Buddhism for Human Life” (人生佛教), emphasizing the improvement of real life as the foundation for Buddhist practice in daily life. He proposed the principle of “following the practice and fruition of the Human Vehicle to cultivate the Mahāyāna path” (依人乘行果，趣修大乘行), suggesting a gradual progression from the human vehicle to the Mahāyāna Bodhisattva path. He introduced the concept of “The perfection of human character leads to Buddhahood” (人圓佛即成) and “Present Bodhisattva Practice” (今菩薩行), highlighting the importance of adapting Buddhist practice to contemporary society and actively engaging in social service. Master Hsing Yun’s advocacy of “Humanistic Buddhism” (人間佛教) emphasizes the diversity of practice, asserting that any action aligned with Buddhist teachings, beneficial to human well-being, and conducive to the welfare of all beings constitutes a form of practice, thereby expanding its definition. He elaborated on the Five Vehicles, viewing the Vehicle of Men and Gods as a preliminary stage, advocating a gradual progression towards the Bodhisattva Vehicle, ultimately culminating in Buddhahood. He proposed the principle of “undertaking worldly affairs with an otherworldly mindset” (以出世的思想，做入世的事業), highlighting the importance of practicing the Bodhisattva path in everyday life. With “Buddha Light Pure Land” (佛光淨土) as the ultimate goal, he sought to integrate the essence of various Pure Lands traditions to achieve earthly peace and purification. Both masters highlight the importance of practicing Humanistic Buddhism, advocating for the application of the Bodhisattva practice in daily life, guiding all beings with compassion and wisdom, and actively engaging in society to address real-world issues, ultimately realizing a Humanistic Pure Land. However, their perspectives also differ: Master Taixu focused more on the theoretical construction and an exposition on the order of practice, whereas Master Hsing Yun placed greater emphasis on the diversity and flexibility of practice and the integration of Buddhist teachings into modern life. Full article