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Advanced Perspectives on the Water–Energy–Food Nexus

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A Special Issue of Water (ISSN 2073-4441) belonging to the section "Water-Energy Nexus".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (25 July 2026) | Viewed by 16049

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Editors

Dr. Qiong Yue

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Guest Editor

College of Agricultural Science and Engineering, Hohai University, Nanjing 210098, China
Interests: water–energy–food nexus; multi-objective modelling; water resource allocation; decision-making; uncertaintyrigation planning management
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Dr. Guohua He

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Guest Editor

China Institute of Water Resources and Hydropower Research, Beijing, China
Interests: water–energy–food nexus; virtual water; water management; climate change; water use efficiency
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Dr. Mengyang Wu

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Guest Editor

Department of Agricultural Water Conservancy, Hohai University, Nanjing 210098, China
Interests: water efficiency assessment; water footprint; paddy field; non-point source pollution; water use efficiency

Prof. Dr. Xinchun Cao

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Guest Editor

Department of Agricultural Water Conservancy, Hohai University, Nanjing 210098, China
Interests: water footprint; agricultural water management; irrigation; virtual water; water use efficiency
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

Water, energy, and food are foundational pillars of human survival, economic development, and ecological balance. The growing demand for natural resources caused by burgeoning population, progressive urbanization, and changing climate, security access to water, energy, and food, is becoming an increasingly pressing issue. Water–energy–food (WEF) nexus plays an important role in addressing such sustainability challenges. While the interdependencies among water, energy, and food systems are widely acknowledged, integrated management remains a formidable challenge. Traditional sectoral policies often exacerbate WEF trade-offs—for instance, bioenergy expansion may compromise water security or irrigation intensification may increase energy scarcity—while climate change amplifies these tensions through cascading risks across scales. Emerging technological and methodological advances offer transformative potential. Transdisciplinary approaches bridge the divide between technical solutions and socio-political realities. These developments demand frameworks that harmonize resource productivity with distributive justice—a gap this Special Issue seeks to address.

In this Special Issue, we welcome original research papers, critical reviews, and case studies that advance the WEF nexus. Topics of interest include, but are not limited to, the following:

Bridging policy silos: cross-sectoral governance for the WEF nexus management;
Efficiency–equity synergies: metrics and governance pathways in WEF nexus systems;
Climate-resilient WEF systems: adaptive strategies under uncertainty;
Cascading risk in WEF networks: modeling interdependencies and mitigation strategies;
AI-integrated decision support systems for WEF trade-offs;
Circular bioeconomy innovations associated with wastewater and bioenergy.

We look forward to your contributions.

Dr. Qiong Yue
Dr. Guohua He
Dr. Mengyang Wu
Prof. Dr. Xinchun Cao
Guest Editors

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Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. The Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal is 2600 CHF (Swiss Francs). Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.

Keywords

water–energy–food nexus
integrated management
cross-sectoral policy
climate resilience
cascading risk

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Published Papers (11 papers)

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Research

25 pages, 2286 KB

Open AccessArticle

Tracing Water, Energy, and Pollution Pressures Driven by Chinese Household Food Demand Within the Water–Energy–Food Nexus

by Tianbo Fu, Jiawen Li and Zheng Wu

Water 2026, 18(17), 2188; https://doi.org/10.3390/w18172188 - 3 Sep 2026

Viewed by 483

Abstract

Household food demand mobilizes water, energy, and pollutants throughout supply chains. Using China’s 2023 211-sector input-output table and environmental accounts, this study traces supply-chain water withdrawal, total energy consumption, and actual loads of chemical oxygen demand (COD), ammonia nitrogen (NH₃-N), total nitrogen (TN), and total phosphorus (TP) across 21 food-related sectors, including catering services (restaurants and related commercial food service activities). Household food demand induced 257 km³ of water withdrawal, 11.7 EJ of energy consumption, and the following pollutant loads: COD (1430 × 10⁴ t), NH₃-N (20.9 × 10⁴ t), TN (129 × 10⁴ t), and TP (20.5 × 10⁴ t). Plant-based primary foods led water withdrawal and nutrient loads; animal-source primary foods generated 59.5% of COD; catering services had the largest energy share. Upstream sectors contributed 53.2% of water withdrawal, 75.6% of energy consumption, 45.1% of COD, and 52.2–52.3% of nutrient loads. Covering 80% of each burden required 12 origin–destination links for water withdrawal, 56 for energy consumption, 5 for COD, and 11 for each nutrient, indicating dispersed energy attribution. Grain, other agricultural products, and livestock and other animal products recurred as multi-pressure hotspots. A conditional 20% reduction in their direct intensities lowered water withdrawal by 15.7%, energy consumption by 2.6%, COD by 10.3%, and nutrient loads by 16.1–16.2%. These findings support targeted water and pollution measures alongside broader upstream energy-efficiency action. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Perspectives on the Water–Energy–Food Nexus)

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20 pages, 8292 KB

Open AccessArticle

Evolution Patterns and Impact Mechanisms of Water–Energy–Food Nexus Evaluation in Arid Regions from a Water Footprint Perspective

by Jiao Wu, Ronghui Huang and Jinpeng Zhang

Water 2026, 18(17), 2161; https://doi.org/10.3390/w18172161 - 1 Sep 2026

Viewed by 489

Abstract

The water–energy–food nexus (WEF nexus) is central to sustainable development in arid regions. However, research on nexus evolution based on water consumed during food and energy production remains limited. In this study, the evolutionary patterns and influencing mechanisms of the WEF nexus in an arid region are investigated from a water footprint perspective, taking the middle reaches of the Yellow River Basin in China as a case study. The results show that from 2010 to 2021, the crop water footprint in the study area exhibited distinct varietal differences, with the highest values for legumes and the lowest for tubers, and a spatial pattern characterized by higher values in the north and lower values in the south. The energy–water footprint underwent a structural shift from grey water dominance to blue water dominance in 2015. The coupling coordination degree of the WEF nexus gradually improved from moderate imbalance to mild imbalance. The core obstacle in the water subsystem shifted from water quantity shortage to an imbalance in water use structure, while that in the energy subsystem moved from supply-side constraints to consumption-side constraints. The food subsystem was constrained by rigid factors related to arable land and ecological conditions. Consequently, the core constraint of the WEF nexus has transitioned from independent bottlenecks within individual subsystems to cross-system coupling constraints. Regulating the water footprint on both the production and consumption sides is conducive to the sustainability of the WEF nexus. The findings of this study enrich the regional empirical evidence of the nexus theory and provide a reference for research and practice concerning the optimal allocation of regional resources. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Perspectives on the Water–Energy–Food Nexus)

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32 pages, 4086 KB

Open AccessArticle

Contrasting Hydropower Development Strategies in Central Asia’s Water–Energy–Food Nexus Through Spatially Explicit System Dynamics Modelling

by Sara Pérez Pérez, Raquel López Fernández, Iván Ramos-Diez, Patricia Osuna Fuentes, Daniel S. Hayes and Jan De Keyser

Water 2026, 18(16), 2007; https://doi.org/10.3390/w18162007 - 17 Aug 2026

Viewed by 706

Abstract

Central Asia faces increasing pressure on transboundary water, energy and food systems, particularly in the Aral Sea Basin, where hydropower, agriculture and downstream water availability are closely linked. This study applies a spatially disaggregated Water–Energy–Food (WEF) Nexus System Dynamics Model under combined climate–socioeconomic scenarios (SSP1-2.6, SSP2-4.5 and SSP5-8.5) to assess hydropower development and policy pathways at basin and sub-basin scales in the Amu Darya and Syr Darya basins during 2015–2050. At basin scale, mean annual water supply remains stable across scenarios, at approximately 42 and 87 million hm³/year, respectively. Under national hydropower plans, installed capacity nearly doubles by 2050, reaching 10.45 and 10.65 GW, respectively. Food supply is more sensitive to climate–socioeconomic pathways than to hydropower expansion, with 2050 values ranging from 1120 to 1370 tonnes in the Syr Darya and 1405 to 1780 tonnes in the Amu Darya. Spatial simulations show that upstream-only development concentrates energy gains, whereas integrated basin-wide planning delivers more balanced WEF outcomes and the highest Aral Sea inflows, reaching 8.41 million hm³/year and 17,319 hm³/year, respectively. Persistent Amu Darya trade-offs underscore the need for transboundary coordination in reservoir operation, irrigation planning and downstream-flow safeguards. Spatial disaggregation reveals trade-offs concealed by basin-scale averages. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Perspectives on the Water–Energy–Food Nexus)

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38 pages, 15423 KB

Open AccessArticle

A Novel Integrated Approach for Spatial Analysis of the Coupling Relationship and Its Driving Mechanisms of the Water–Energy–Food–Ecology–Land Nexus in the Yellow River Basin of China

by Xianzhi Liu, Ruining Yang, Xinyue Zhang, Aolong Sun, Fei Zhang, Chunyan Li and Junming Li

Water 2026, 18(13), 1577; https://doi.org/10.3390/w18131577 - 28 Jun 2026

Viewed by 627

Abstract

The Yellow River Basin (YRB) region, a pivotal ecological and economic hub in China, relies on water, energy, food, ecology, and land for its sustainable development. Notably, despite abundant research on the coupling relationship of the water–energy–food (WEF) nexus, ecological and land factors remain absent from existing unified analytical frameworks. This study proposed a novel integrated approach to evaluate the coupling coordination characteristics of the water–energy–food–ecology–land (WEFEL) nexus in the YRB from 2010 to 2023. The evaluation index system was then optimised by combining amalgamated principal component analysis, R-cluster analysis, the Pearson correlation coefficient, and the coefficient of variation. Additionally, the information entropy–spatiotemporal dynamic entropy method was used to determine indicator weights, considering spatial, temporal, and spatiotemporal interaction dimensions. An improved dynamic coupling coordination model, combined with kernel density estimation, an obstacle degree model, and the XGBoost-SHAP algorithm, was applied to analyse coupling coordination, evolution patterns, constraint factors, and driving mechanisms. The key findings are as follows: (1) The overall WEFEL coupling coordination of the Yellow River Basin steadily rose from 0.3400 in 2010 to 0.4223 in 2023, remaining predominantly at the transitional development stage. (2) Water and food systems are the core constraints, with combined constraint levels exceeding 56% annually; ecological system constraints show a persistent upward trend. (3) Per capita regional GDP, fiscal expenditure ratio, and industrial upgrading are the primary drivers, collectively accounting for over 62% of the cumulative contribution, with the synergistic interaction between economic development and fiscal regulation being the most pronounced. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Perspectives on the Water–Energy–Food Nexus)

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22 pages, 2178 KB

Open AccessArticle

The Impact Mechanism of Artificial Intelligence Development on Water–Energy–Food System Technical Efficiency—An Empirical Study in China

by Ruopeng Huang, Yue Han and Jianjie Feng

Water 2026, 18(12), 1447; https://doi.org/10.3390/w18121447 - 12 Jun 2026

Viewed by 617

Abstract

To investigate the interaction between artificial intelligence development (AID) and water–energy–food system technical efficiency (WEF-TE), panel data from 264 cities in China from 2013 to 2023 were utilized, and WEF-TE in the study areas was estimated using Stochastic Frontier Analysis (SFA). Subsequently, the Error Correction Model (ECM) and a random forest model were adopted for empirically examining the adjustment and driving mechanisms of AID on WEF-TE from three dimensions, namely enterprise scale, application level, and workforce literacy. The results indicate the following: (1) China’s WEF-TE generally shows an increasing trend; however, clear differences remain between high-value and low-value regions, and the deviation in lagging areas can reach 0.507. Meanwhile, the Yellow River Basin, which is the core region of China’s WEF system, remains below the national average in the process of technical efficiency optimization. (2) AID has a long-term equilibrium relationship with WEF-TE across the research dimensions and can effectively adjust technological inefficiencies in the short term, with adjustment coefficients ranging from 0.004 to 0.021 under different test rules. (3) In terms of enterprise scale and application level, the driving effect of AID on WEF-TE is relatively strong, with feature weights of 0.16 and 0.155, which are close to those of human capital input (0.172) and industrial structure rationalization (0.15). This study provides important reference value for constructing an interdisciplinary research framework that integrates WEF Nexus with AID. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Perspectives on the Water–Energy–Food Nexus)

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22 pages, 8259 KB

Open AccessArticle

An Integrated Modeling Approach for Managing the Water–Energy–Food Nexus in Resource-Based Cities: A Case Study of Daqing, China

by Chuanlei Wen, Hengtian Li, Min Han, Hongbing Zhao, Lifeng Chen, Qiufeng Guo, Yan Lyu, Yuan Xiu, Yuangeng Cheng and Yalu Han

Water 2026, 18(6), 723; https://doi.org/10.3390/w18060723 - 19 Mar 2026

Viewed by 668

Abstract

Resource-based regions (RBRs) are vital to socio-economic development, yet intensive resource exploitation strains water, energy, and food (WEF) security and causes environmental stress. Optimizing collaborative management of the WEF nexus is crucial for their sustainable development. This study developed an integrated model (WEFN) for optimizing the WEF nexus in RBRs by combining multi-objective optimization and the efficacy coefficient method. The WEFN model incorporates internal couplings and external linkages of the WEF nexus into objectives and constraints. Using Daqing, China, as a case study, six policy scenarios were designed. S1 follows the 2030 planning scheme, while S2–S5 prioritize energy-food supply, environmental protection, water conservation, and economic gains, respectively. S6, formulated via the WEFN model, integrates the objectives of S2–S5 into a collaborative management policy. A comprehensive benefit evaluation system was established, yielding an Evaluation Index (EVI) to quantify WEF system benefits and identify the optimal scenario. Results show that collaborative policy S6 best supports coordinated socio-economic and environmental development in Daqing. The findings offer a valuable reference for WEF nexus management in other RBRs. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Perspectives on the Water–Energy–Food Nexus)

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30 pages, 4409 KB

Open AccessArticle

Divergent Trajectories of the Water–Energy–Food Nexus in the Yangtze River Economic Belt

by Yiyang Li, Hongrui Wang, Li Zhang, Hongchong Wang, Yuhan Ding and Xinlong Du

Water 2026, 18(5), 538; https://doi.org/10.3390/w18050538 - 25 Feb 2026

Viewed by 968

Abstract

Unraveling the coupling mechanisms of the Water–Energy–Food (WEF) nexus is critical for regional synergistic security and high-quality development. Using an integrated “relationship identification, equation construction, and scenario prediction” framework, this study characterized the spatiotemporal evolution of WEF interactions in the Yangtze River Economic Belt. Under this framework, a Granger causality test coupled with a SHAP interpretability model was first employed to quantify the causal strength among nexus elements, followed by a Bayesian Vector Autoregression model integrated with a hybrid Recurrent Neural Network (RNN) and System Dynamics (SD) approach to simulate evolutionary trajectories from 2024 to 2035. Results showed that: (1) The nexus mechanisms exhibited significant spatial duality. Upstream egg production drove a high virtual water footprint, while inland seafood consumption imposed a non-linear energy premium due to cold-chain dependency. In Shanghai, a strong diesel–groundwater coupling revealed a trade-off between energy input and underground safety. (2) Localized feed cultivation was the core driver for upstream water pressure, whereas logistics intensity was the dominant factor for energy–water interactions in urbanized regions. (3) From 2024 to 2035, the nexus structure will undergo bidirectional divergence. Ecological water demand in the midstream is projected to surge by over 130%, and Anhui’s milk production is forecast to more than double from 107.77 to 225.7 million tons. The findings provide scientific support for coordinating ecological conservation and high-quality development. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Perspectives on the Water–Energy–Food Nexus)

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14 pages, 4235 KB

Open AccessArticle

Investigation of Water Supply Through Renewable Energy During the Peak Tourist Season on Mykonos Island

by Athanasios-Foivos Papathanasiou, Ioannis Platanitis and Evangelos Baltas

Water 2026, 18(2), 259; https://doi.org/10.3390/w18020259 - 19 Jan 2026

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1675

Abstract

This research study examines a renewable energy system that has been designed to meet the water needs of Mykonos, a tourism-dependent island in Greece with high seasonal demand. The proposed system consists of 22 wind turbines of 2.3 MW each, 4 desalination units with a total capacity of 1400 m³/h and multiple pumped-hydro storage reservoirs with a total volume of 3,900,000 m³. Two operational scenarios were analyzed. Water production through desalination was prioritized in both scenarios; however, their difference lies in the way excess renewable energy has been allocated: that is either to storage or to electricity generation. The results indicate that water demand in Mykonos is almost fully met in both scenarios, reaching a coverage of 99.9%. However, there is a significant difference between the two scenarios regarding energy coverage, which corresponds to coverage rates of 73% and 79%, respectively. From an economic perspective, the marginal selling price of electricity is EUR/MWh 100 and the cost of desalinated water ranges from EUR/m³ 0.48 to 0.91 depending on the operating scenario. Overall, the results demonstrate nearly complete water autonomy in both scenarios, whereas the second scenario is proven optimal in terms of energy coverage. This approach proves that integrated water and energy management can lower fossil fuel use and improve sustainability on islands with strong seasonal variations. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Perspectives on the Water–Energy–Food Nexus)

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26 pages, 5018 KB

Open AccessArticle

Does Understanding Water Footprint and Virtual Water Concepts Promote Water Conservation?

by Shengqian Zhang, Mengyang Wu, Raffaele Albano and Xinchun Cao

Water 2025, 17(24), 3480; https://doi.org/10.3390/w17243480 - 8 Dec 2025

Viewed by 1247

Abstract

Amid escalating global water scarcity and growing emphasis on demand-side interventions for sustainable resource use, understanding how consumers’ virtual water cognition can drive food–water resource conservation is critical for strengthening sustainable resource governance. Through a questionnaire survey, this study constructed a Food–Water Behavior Synergy Model to explore the relationship among consumers’ virtual water cognition and food-conservation behavior, water-conservation behavior, and food–water synergistic cognition in China. Results show that virtual water cognition significantly increased food-conservation behavior (β = 0.158, p < 0.001) and WCB (β = 0.064, p < 0.001). Food–water synergistic cognition also positively affected food-conservation behavior (β = 0.099, p < 0.001) and water-conservation behavior (β = 0.035, p < 0.01), consistent with the knowledge–action framework. The magnitudes of these effects differed across subgroups (gender, education level, major, region, and urban–rural residence). Virtual water cognition did not significantly enhance food–water synergistic cognition (β = 0.006, p = 0.758), providing empirical evidence of a knowledge–action gap. There was a strong direct effect of food-conservation behavior on water-conservation behavior (β = 0.498, p < 0.001), and there was evidence that food-conservation behavior mediated the indirect paths from both virtual water cognition and food–water synergistic cognition to water-conservation behavior. Implementing consumer-oriented contextual interventions—such as differentiated educational guidance and water-footprint labeling—would be conducive to translating theoretical knowledge into practical action. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Perspectives on the Water–Energy–Food Nexus)

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18 pages, 2548 KB

Open AccessArticle

Flood-Induced Agricultural Damage Assessment: A Case Study of Pakistan

by Abid Nazir, Awais Ahmad, Mohsin Ramzan, Hammad Gilani, Muhammad Mobeen, Shahid Tarer and Niall P. Hanan

Water 2025, 17(21), 3060; https://doi.org/10.3390/w17213060 - 25 Oct 2025

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 5625

Abstract

Climate variability and extreme weather events, particularly flooding, pose growing threats to agricultural productivity worldwide, including in Pakistan. Traditional crop damage assessments during flood events have relied on field surveys, which are often time-intensive and spatially limited. Recent advancements in remote sensing technologies now allow for rapid and large-scale estimation of flood-induced agricultural damage. This study assesses agricultural damage from two recent extreme flood events in Pakistan, integrating crop condition and flood intensity metrics. We present remote sensing-based case studies that employ an interdisciplinary approach, using Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS), Sentinel-1, and Sentinel-2 imagery along with crop data. Our results show that flood timing, crop stage, and inundation duration were the most influential factors in determining crop loss. We determined that Northern Sindh province and areas along the Indus River and its tributaries are highly vulnerable to flooding, resulting in extensive damage to infrastructure, crops, and loss of lives during flood events in 2010 and 2022, followed by Punjab, Balochistan, and Khyber Pakhtunkhwa. Remote sensing-derived damage estimates were closely aligned with post-event ground reports, validating the approach. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Perspectives on the Water–Energy–Food Nexus)

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29 pages, 8743 KB

Open AccessArticle

Coupled Simulation of the Water–Food–Energy–Ecology System Under Extreme Drought Events: A Case Study of Beijing–Tianjin–Hebei, China

by Huanyu Chang, Naren Fang, Yongqiang Cao, Jiaqi Yao and Zhen Hong

Water 2025, 17(14), 2103; https://doi.org/10.3390/w17142103 - 15 Jul 2025

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 2029

Abstract

The Beijing–Tianjin–Hebei (BTH) region is one of China’s most water-scarce yet economically vital areas, facing increasing challenges due to climate change and intensive human activities. This study develops an integrated Water–Food–Energy–Ecology (WFEE) simulation and regulation model to assess the system’s stability under coordinated development scenarios and extreme climate stress. A 500-year precipitation series was reconstructed using historical drought and flood records combined with wavelet analysis and machine learning models (Random Forest and Support Vector Regression). Results show that during the reconstructed historical megadrought (1633–1647), with average precipitation anomalies reaching −20% to −27%, leading to a regional water shortage rate of 16.9%, food self-sufficiency as low as 44.7%, and a critical reduction in ecological river discharge. Under future recommended scenario with enhanced water conservation, reclaimed water reuse, and expanded inter-basin transfers, the region could maintain a water shortage rate of 2.6%, achieve 69.3% food self-sufficiency, and support ecological water demand. However, long-term water resource degradation could still reduce food self-sufficiency to 62.9% and ecological outflows by 20%. The findings provide insights into adaptive water management, highlight the vulnerability of highly coupled systems to prolonged droughts, and support regional policy decisions on resilience-oriented water infrastructure planning. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Perspectives on the Water–Energy–Food Nexus)

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