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Vehicle Design Processes, 2nd Edition

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A special issue of Vehicles (ISSN 2624-8921).

Deadline for manuscript submissions: 31 December 2024 | Viewed by 15435

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Prof. Dr. Ralf Stetter

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Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Ravensburg-Weingarten University of Applied Sciences, 88250 Weingarten, Germany
Interests: autonomous vehicles; vehicle interior; vehicle ergonomics; vehicle seating systems; vehicle design processes; fault-tolerant control and design
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Prof. Dr. Udo Pulm

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Department of Mechanical Engineering and Production Management, Hamburg University of Applied Sciences, 20099 Hamburg, Germany
Interests: system theory; technical ethics; interdisciplinary design processes; functional modelling; environmental protection; digitalisation and artificial intelligence
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Prof. Dr. Markus Till

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Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Ravensburg-Weingarten University of Applied Sciences, 88250 Weingarten, Germany
Interests: simulation; digital design processes; vehicle design processes; mechanisms for convertibles; multi-body analysis; finite lement analysis
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Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

The design processes of vehicles are a promising research topic. The design of vehicles is one of the most challenging tasks in engineering because of several reasons. The enormous consumer expectations as well as the intensive global competition aggravates vehicle design. Cost-driven design is a necessity and vehicles need to be economical in production, operation, and recycling; in fact, sustainable design is also imperative for ecological vehicles. The dynamics of vehicles have to be considered in the design of all components and light-weight design is of fundamental importance. Consumers expect convincing functional performance, high product quality, appealing appearance, high reliability, interconnected functionality as well as comprehensible and appealing user interfaces. More and more, additional services are connected with vehicles. These enormous requirements lead to complex multi-domain design processes of vehicles, because most of the important decisions are made in the design phase. Production optimization and intelligent operation are important topics, but flaws and insufficiencies in the design stage lead to enormous expenditures in later stages and less-than-perfect products. The design processes of vehicles involve thousands of engineers are spread globally and need to consider multiple product versions and variants as well as multi-company product platforms. Very often, testing necessities and legal issues play an important role in these processes and the economic and ecological quality of the product has to be monitored throughout the processes. Even in early stages, vehicle safety and ergonomic quality need to be considered. Needless to say, only digital support makes these processes feasible. For all domains, powerful computer tools for synthesis, analysis, evaluation, and optimization were created and numerous attempts try to sensibly link the data used in all these tools. However, many domain specific and generic data formats as well as the sheer size of the data still create serious problems. It is important to note that design is also connected with scheduling and project management, because certain design decisions can lead to long-term testing and production preparation processes. The listed challenges concerning the multi-domain design processes of vehicles lead to a prominent need for research activities aimed at supporting the designers in this endeavor. This Special Issue intends to present the current status of these research activities. They will range from application-oriented attempts to improve certain design tools over process improvement attempts to fully integrated digital processes as well as novel approaches in this field such as big data and artificial intelligence. We are looking forward for your excellent research papers.

Prof. Dr. Ralf Stetter
Prof. Dr. Udo Pulm
Prof. Dr. Markus Till
Guest Editors

Manuscript Submission Information

Manuscripts should be submitted online at www.mdpi.com by registering and logging in to this website. Once you are registered, click here to go to the submission form. Manuscripts can be submitted until the deadline. All submissions that pass pre-check are peer-reviewed. Accepted papers will be published continuously in the journal (as soon as accepted) and will be listed together on the special issue website. Research articles, review articles as well as short communications are invited. For planned papers, a title and short abstract (about 100 words) can be sent to the Editorial Office for announcement on this website.

Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a single-blind peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. Vehicles is an international peer-reviewed open access quarterly journal published by MDPI.

Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. The Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal is 1600 CHF (Swiss Francs). Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.

Keywords

design processes
vehicle design
design engineering
digital design
robotics
product data management
multi-domain design processes
vehicle dynamics
vehicle safety
vehicle ergonomics

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Vehicle Design Processes in Vehicles (12 articles)

Published Papers (10 papers)

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Research

20 pages, 3694 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Prediction of Residual Wear Resources of Composite Brake Pads of a Modernized Brake System of Freight Wagons

by Sergii Panchenko, Juraj Gerlici, Alyona Lovska, Vasyl Ravlyuk and Ján Dižo

Vehicles 2024, 6(4), 1975-1994; https://doi.org/10.3390/vehicles6040097 - 25 Nov 2024

Viewed by 338

Abstract

This research highlights the results of a comprehensive study of the efficiency of modernized brake systems operation of freight wagons. The inspection of the modernized elements of the lever brake system of bogies and the measurement of the wear parameters of composite brake pads during each cycle of the experimental wagons in the interval of mileage from 2.1 to 197.8 thousand km were carried out. A statistical approach was used to study the wear parameters of brake pads of modernized bogies brake systems determined during operational studies. This allowed appropriate dependencies of brake pad wear to be obtained. Based on the research results, a regression model was developed. This makes it possible to predict the residual wear resource of composite brake pads with modernized braking systems of bogies for the entire inter-repair period of operation of freight wagons guaranteed by the wagon repair company. The peculiarity of the model is that it considers the total and additional mileage of the freight wagon. This makes it possible to more accurately predict the residual lifetime of composite brake pads. It was established that, under the condition of uniform wear of brake pads, the average mileage of a freight wagon during the use of modernized brake systems of bogies can reach up to 284.57 thousand km, which increases the resource of composite pads’ wear approximately by 2.59 times. The generated model was verified by the F-criterion. Approbation of experimental devices for uniform wear of composite pads in operation established that measures to modernize brake systems of freight wagons ensure the reliable and efficient operation of the brake lever system as a whole. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Vehicle Design Processes, 2nd Edition)

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22 pages, 6084 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Design, Topology Optimization, Manufacturing and Testing of a Brake Caliper MADE of Scalmalloy^® for Formula SAE Race Cars

by Luca Vecchiato, Federico Capraro and Giovanni Meneghetti

Vehicles 2024, 6(3), 1591-1612; https://doi.org/10.3390/vehicles6030075 - 4 Sep 2024

Viewed by 2116

Abstract

This paper details the conceptualization, design, topology optimization, manufacturing, and validation of a hydraulic brake caliper for Formula SAE race cars made of Scalmalloy^®, an innovative Al-Mg-Sc alloy which was never adopted before to manufacture a brake caliper. A monoblock fixed caliper with opposing pistons was developed, focusing on reducing mass for a fixed braking force. The design process began with a theoretical analysis to establish braking force and pressure requirements, followed by preliminary design and topology optimization. The caliper was then manufactured using laser powder bed fusion (LPBF). Comprehensive experimental validation, including testing with static and rotating brake discs on an inertial dynamometer, confirmed the expected caliper’s performance, with the results showing strong alignment with finite element analysis estimations. In particular, strain and displacement measurements showed excellent correlation with numerical estimates, validating the design’s accuracy and effectiveness. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Vehicle Design Processes, 2nd Edition)

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20 pages, 6718 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Using Multimodal Large Language Models (MLLMs) for Automated Detection of Traffic Safety-Critical Events

by Mohammad Abu Tami, Huthaifa I. Ashqar, Mohammed Elhenawy, Sebastien Glaser and Andry Rakotonirainy

Vehicles 2024, 6(3), 1571-1590; https://doi.org/10.3390/vehicles6030074 - 2 Sep 2024

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1779

Abstract

Traditional approaches to safety event analysis in autonomous systems have relied on complex machine and deep learning models and extensive datasets for high accuracy and reliability. However, the emerge of multimodal large language models (MLLMs) offers a novel approach by integrating textual, visual, and audio modalities. Our framework leverages the logical and visual reasoning power of MLLMs, directing their output through object-level question–answer (QA) prompts to ensure accurate, reliable, and actionable insights for investigating safety-critical event detection and analysis. By incorporating models like Gemini-Pro-Vision 1.5, we aim to automate safety-critical event detection and analysis along with mitigating common issues such as hallucinations in MLLM outputs. The results demonstrate the framework’s potential in different in-context learning (ICT) settings such as zero-shot and few-shot learning methods. Furthermore, we investigate other settings such as self-ensemble learning and a varying number of frames. The results show that a few-shot learning model consistently outperformed other learning models, achieving the highest overall accuracy of about 79%. The comparative analysis with previous studies on visual reasoning revealed that previous models showed moderate performance in driving safety tasks, while our proposed model significantly outperformed them. To the best of our knowledge, our proposed MLLM model stands out as the first of its kind, capable of handling multiple tasks for each safety-critical event. It can identify risky scenarios, classify diverse scenes, determine car directions, categorize agents, and recommend the appropriate actions, setting a new standard in safety-critical event management. This study shows the significance of MLLMs in advancing the analysis of naturalistic driving videos to improve safety-critical event detection and understanding the interactions in complex environments. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Vehicle Design Processes, 2nd Edition)

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32 pages, 1520 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Exploring Factors Influencing Electric Vehicle Purchase Intentions through an Extended Technology Acceptance Model

by Zhiyou Sun and Boyoung Lee

Vehicles 2024, 6(3), 1513-1544; https://doi.org/10.3390/vehicles6030072 - 30 Aug 2024

Viewed by 2274

Abstract

Recently, with climate deterioration and environmental pollution, consumers are becoming more and more aware of the use of sustainable energy. In particular, the demand for electric vehicles that use sustainable energy is also increasing. In addition, due to the simple driving principle of pure electric vehicles, many electric vehicles developed by electronics companies are continuously being launched. Electric vehicles not only use renewable energy to protect the environment but also save on various usage expenses, so they are expected to become the main products in the mobile travel equipment market in the future. This study aims to explore the impact of product design dimensions on electric vehicle (EV) purchase intentions, provide a theoretical basis for companies’ differentiation strategies, and reflect the impact of product design on purchase intention. This study uses Davis’s TAM combined with environmental awareness (EA) for analysis; an online survey was conducted on Chinese (n = 468) and Korean (n = 409) consumers, both male and female, aged 20–60 years and above. We found that, for Chinese consumers, the aesthetic and symbolic dimensions do not affect perceived usefulness and perceived ease of use, but they do affect environmental awareness, while the functional dimension affects not only perceived ease of use and usefulness but also environmental awareness. For Korean consumers, the aesthetic, functional, and symbolic dimensions all affect perceived ease of use and environmental awareness, but perceived usefulness is only affected by aesthetics and environmental awareness. Through simulation analysis, the results show that perceived ease of use, usefulness, and environmental awareness all directly affect purchase intentions. Perceived ease of use and environmental awareness are particularly important for Chinese consumers, while Korean consumers pay more attention to the test drive experience and environmental awareness. The results show that electric vehicle manufacturers should develop new technologies for the Chinese market to attract consumers, while in the Korean market, they should improve perceived usefulness through test drives and pay attention to environmental awareness. Specific statistical data show that both Chinese and Korean consumers assign importance to the impact of environmental awareness on purchase intention, proving the importance of environmental awareness. The results of this study will be of great reference value to electric vehicle manufacturers, policymakers, and consumer behavior researchers, helping them to better understand the role of product design in improving the market acceptance of electric vehicles. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Vehicle Design Processes, 2nd Edition)

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19 pages, 30361 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Innovative Vehicle Design Processes Based on the Integrated Framework for Abstract Physics Modeling (IF4APM)

by Ralf Stetter

Vehicles 2024, 6(3), 1345-1363; https://doi.org/10.3390/vehicles6030064 - 3 Aug 2024

Viewed by 1206

Abstract

In industrial vehicle design processes, most companies have implemented model-based systems engineering (MBSE). As a consequence, design processes are nowadays not driven by documents, but by digital models of the vehicle to be developed and its components. These models exist on different levels of abstraction. The models on the requirements level are already well defined as well as the models of the defined product behavior and product properties. In recent years, the specification of models on the level of product functions was largely clarified, and elaborate frameworks already exist. However, this is not yet true for the level between functions and definite properties; this level can be referred to as "abstract physics". The enormous importance of this level, which, amongst others, can represent the physical effect chains which allow a vehicle component to function, is expressed by several researchers. Several research works aim at specifying models on this level, but, until now, no general consensus can be identified, and the existing model specifications are less appropriate for the early stages of vehicle design. This paper explains an Integrated Framework for Abstract Physics Modeling (IF4APM), which incorporates different perspectives of abstract physics and is suited for the early phases. The explanation is based on typical components of several kinds of vehicles. The main advantages of the proposed approach are the consistent interconnection of abstract product models, the clearness and understandability of the resulting matrices, and the aptitude to be used in the early phases of a vehicle design process. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Vehicle Design Processes, 2nd Edition)

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34 pages, 8298 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Virtual Plug-In Hybrid Concept Development and Optimization under Real-World Boundary Conditions

by Jannik Kexel, Jonas Müller, Ferris Herkenrath, Philipp Hermsen, Marco Günther and Stefan Pischinger

Vehicles 2024, 6(3), 1216-1248; https://doi.org/10.3390/vehicles6030058 - 15 Jul 2024

Viewed by 1279

Abstract

The automotive industry faces development challenges due to emerging technologies, regulatory demands, societal trends, and evolving customer mobility needs. These factors contribute to a wide range of vehicle variants and increasingly complex powertrains. The layout of a vehicle is usually based on standardized driving cycles such as WLTC, gradeability, acceleration test cases, and many more. In real-world driving cycles, however, this can lead to limitations under certain boundary conditions. To ensure that all customer requirements are met, vehicle testing is conducted under extreme environmental conditions, e.g., in Sweden or Spain. One way to reduce the development time while ensuring high product quality and cost-effectiveness is to use model-based methods for the comprehensive design of powertrains. This study presents a layout methodology using a top-down approach. Initially, powertrain-relevant requirements for an exemplary target customer are translated into a specification sheet with specific test cases. An overall vehicle model with detailed thermal sub-models is developed to evaluate the different requirements. A baseline design for a C-segment plug-in hybrid vehicle was developed as part of the FVV research project HyFlex-ICE using standardized test cases, highlighting the influence of customer profiles on the design outcome through varying weighting factors. The target customer’s design is analyzed in four real driving scenarios, considering variations in parameters such as the ambient temperature, traffic, driver type, trailer pulling, and battery state-of-charge, to assess their influence on the target variables. In the next step, the potential of hardware technologies and predictive driving functions is examined in selected driving scenarios based on the identified constraints of the baseline design. As a result, four application-specific technology packages (Cost neutral, Cold country, Hot country, and Premium) for different customer requirements and sales markets are defined, which, finally, demonstrates the applicability of the holistic methodology. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Vehicle Design Processes, 2nd Edition)

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19 pages, 10458 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Lifting Actuator Concept and Design Method for Modular Vehicles with Autonomous Capsule Changing Capabilities

by Fabian Weitz, Niklas Leonard Ostendorff, Michael Frey and Frank Gauterin

Vehicles 2024, 6(3), 1070-1088; https://doi.org/10.3390/vehicles6030051 - 28 Jun 2024

Viewed by 1080

Abstract

Novel vehicle concepts are needed to meet the requirements of resource-conserving and efficient mobility in the future, especially in urban areas. In the automated, driverless electric vehicle concept U-Shift, a new form of mobility is created by separating a vehicle into a drive module and a transport capsule. The autonomous driving module, the so-called Driveboard, is able to change the transport capsules independently and is therefore used to transport both people and goods. The wide range of possible capsules poses major challenges for the development of the Driveboard and the chassis in particular. A lifting actuator integrated into the chassis concept enables levelling and, thus, the raising and lowering of the Driveboard and the capsules to ground level. This means that no additional lifting devices are required for changing the capsules or for lowering them to the ground, e.g., for loading and unloading the capsules. To realise this mechanism simply and efficiently, a fully electromechanical actuator is designed and constructed. The actuator consists primarily of a profile rail guide, a steel cable winch, an electric motor, a housing that connects the subsystems and a locking mechanism. The electric motor is used to lift the vehicle and regulate the weight force-driven lowering of the vehicle. This paper describes the design of the actuator and shows the dimensioning of all main components according to the boundary conditions. Finally, the prototype model of the realised concept is presented. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Vehicle Design Processes, 2nd Edition)

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29 pages, 2311 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Evaluation of SiL Testing Potential—Shifting from HiL by Identifying Compatible Requirements with vECUs

by Rudolf Keil, Jan Alexander Tschorn, Johannes Tümler and Mehmet Ercan Altinsoy

Vehicles 2024, 6(2), 920-948; https://doi.org/10.3390/vehicles6020044 - 29 May 2024

Viewed by 1739

Abstract

Due to the increasing complexity of vehicle software, it is becoming increasingly difficult to comprehensively test all requirements. This inevitably means that alternative test methods, e.g., simulation-based methods, must be used more frequently. However, the challenge involves identifying appropriate requirements that can be technically tested in a simulation environment initially. The present work is aimed at evaluation and optimization of the effectiveness of software-in-the-loop (SiL) simulations in the testing process of vehicle software. The focus is on supporting the testing process by shifting specific test cases from hardware-in-the-loop (HiL) test benches to SiL-based simulations. For this purpose, a systematic approach was developed to analyze and categorize requirements, enabling precise and efficient allocation of test cases. Furthermore, a detailed review and recommendation for improving the ProSTEP iViP standard for virtual electronic control units (vECU) was carried out. The developed matrix associates the defined requirement clusters with different classifications of vECUs, facilitating the identification of suitable test environment types for conducting specific test cases. By assigning test cases to appropriate vECU levels, the testing processes can be targeted and cost-optimized. Finally, the theoretical results were evaluated in an SiL simulation environment. It was observed that a significant part of the requirements could effectively be tested using a vECU. These findings confirmed the potential of SiL simulation environments to not only support, but also enhance, the testing process for vehicle software by providing a cost-effective and flexible complement to traditional HiL test benches. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Vehicle Design Processes, 2nd Edition)

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24 pages, 17633 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Optimization, Design, and Manufacturing of New Steel-FRP Automotive Fuel Cell Medium Pressure Plate Using Compression Molding

by Sharath Christy Anand, Florian Mielke, Daniel Heidrich and Xiangfan Fang

Vehicles 2024, 6(2), 850-873; https://doi.org/10.3390/vehicles6020041 - 25 May 2024

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1413

Abstract

In this work, a new plastic-intensive medium-pressure plate (MPP), which is part of a fuel-cell system, has been developed together with a steel plate meeting all mechanical and chemical requirements. This newly developed MPP had to achieve the objective of saving weight and package space. The use of compression molding as a manufacturing technique facilitated the use of glass mat thermoplastics (GMT) which has higher E-modules and strength compared to most of the injection molded materials. A steel plate was placed as an insert to help achieve the stiffness requirements. For the development, the existing MPP was benchmarked for its structural capabilities and its underlying functional features. Four different FRP materials were investigated in terms of their chemical and mechanical properties. PP-GMT material, which has both high mechanical performance and resistance against chemicals in the fuel cell fluid, had been chosen. Using the properties of the chosen PP-GMT material, topology optimization was carried out based on the quasi-static load case and manufacturing constraints, which gave a load-conforming rib structure. The obtained rib structure was utilized to develop the final MPP with adherence to the functional requirements of MPP. The developed plastic-intensive MPP exhibits a 3-in-1 component feature with a 55% reduction in package space and an 8% weight reduction. The MPP was virtually analyzed for its mechanical strength and compared with the existing benchmark values. Finally, a press tool was conceptualized and manufactured to fabricate the new plastic-intensive MPP, which was tested in a rig and validated in the FE model. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Vehicle Design Processes, 2nd Edition)

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12 pages, 1135 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Comparative Assessment for Holistic Evaluation of Drive Systems

by Raphael Mieth and Frank Gauterin

Vehicles 2024, 6(1), 403-414; https://doi.org/10.3390/vehicles6010017 - 13 Feb 2024

Viewed by 1261

Abstract

The development of vehicle drive systems targets different goals, which are partly contradictory. While the focus is often on increasing efficiency and—depending on the type of drive system—performance, the aim is to simultaneously reduce costs, weight, and volume as much as possible. This goal generally presents a conflict of objectives; for example, a gain in efficiency usually correlates with higher costs, or an increase in performance reduces the maximum achievable efficiency. Therefore, each drive system represents a compromise among these goals, and depending on the main focus, the development can be influenced. The methods presented in this work serve as a methodological framework for the evaluation of vehicle drive systems. The procedure involves evaluating different drive concepts based on defined criteria and comparing these evaluations with one another. These criteria can be selected freely and weighted differently, depending on the individual focus. In the sense of a holistic assessment, a system evaluation factor ultimately serves as an indicator, which is composed of the rating values of the individual criteria, taking into account their specific weightings. With the help of the novel method presented in this paper, the complexity of comparing differently designed powertrains is reduced, and a holistic assessment covering relevant viewpoints is possible. Such an all-encompassing view is helpful in the early development phase and is required as an evaluation basis for further, groundbreaking decisions in concept development. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Vehicle Design Processes, 2nd Edition)

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