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Toxics
Special Issues
Toxicity and Safety Assessment of Exposure to Heavy Metals
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Toxicity and Safety Assessment of Exposure to Heavy Metals

A special issue of Toxics (ISSN 2305-6304). This special issue belongs to the section "Metals and Radioactive Substances".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: 21 June 2026 | Viewed by 7939

Special Issue Editors

Dr. Cristina Carvalho

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences and Medicines, Faculty of Pharmacy, Research Institute for Medicines (iMed.ULisboa), University of Lisbon, 1600-049 Lisbon, Portugal
Interests: risk assessment and exposure assessment of risky populations; molecular mechanisms of toxicity; thioredoxin and glutaredoxin systems; mercury, methylmercury and thimerosal; drug repurposing; cancer
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals
Prof. Dr. Michael Aschner

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
Albert Einstein College of Medicine, Yeshiva University, New York, NY, USA
Interests: neurotoxicology; metals; neurodegeneration
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

As organizers of this Special Issue, we intend to provide insight into the sources of heavy metals and metalloids and their effects on the environment and living organisms, covering traditional and modern faces of exposure as described below.

Heavy metals and metalloids toxicity has proven to be a major threat, and there are several health risks associated with it. Heavy metals such as cadmium, mercury, aluminum, iron, arsenic, lead, and chromium imbalance ROS production and the defense redox systems, leading to toxicity in target organs that depend upon the absorbed dose, the route of exposure, and the duration of exposure, i.e., acute or chronic.

We look with particular interest to recently identified forms of exposure to metals, such as the metals associated with micro- and nanoplastics. Metal-based imaging agents containing gallium and gadolinium are also important for this topic.

Supplementation of iron, zinc, copper, and selenium, among others, prevents diseases, but the excess of these elements is also deleterious to the organisms and is also linked to health problems, and this constitutes another facet of this Special Issue.

The use of metals for health and healing, such as platinum compounds, gold, ruthenium, osmium, iridium, rhodium, silver, and rhenium complexes, has been the subject of intensive investigation and they are drug candidates for cancer and infectious diseases as well as antirheumatic, antimalarial, and antimicrobial drugs. Nevertheless, the use of these metallodrugs is not exempt from risk, and papers reporting either their toxicity or safety assessment are very welcome.

Finally, ways to counterbalance the toxicity of metals and metalloids are considered contributions of great interest.

Dr. Cristina Carvalho
Prof. Dr. Michael Aschner
Guest Editors

Manuscript Submission Information

Manuscripts should be submitted online at www.mdpi.com by registering and logging in to this website. Once you are registered, click here to go to the submission form. Manuscripts can be submitted until the deadline. All submissions that pass pre-check are peer-reviewed. Accepted papers will be published continuously in the journal (as soon as accepted) and will be listed together on the special issue website. Research articles, review articles as well as short communications are invited. For planned papers, a title and short abstract (about 250 words) can be sent to the Editorial Office for assessment.

Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a single-blind peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. Toxics is an international peer-reviewed open access monthly journal published by MDPI.

Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. The Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal is 2600 CHF (Swiss Francs). Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.

Keywords

  • human exposure to metals
  • environmental contamination
  • metals’ biogeochemistry
  • food metal contaminants
  • toxic effects of metals
  • metals’ mechanisms of toxicity
  • risk assessment
  • biomarkers
  • metallodrugs
  • metal ion chelators

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Further information on MDPI's Special Issue policies can be found here.

Published Papers (5 papers)

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Research

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17 pages, 1723 KB  
Article
Impact of Cadmium on Prostate-Specific Antigen and Endothelial Markers: A Risk for Prostatic Damage
by Servet Birgin İritaş, Melih Gaffar Gözükara, Lütfiye Tutkun, Deniz Özkan Vardar, Murat Büyükşekerci, Gülsüm Abusoğlu, Serdar Deniz, Vugar Ali Türksoy and Engin Tutkun
Toxics 2025, 13(12), 1049; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics13121049 - 4 Dec 2025
Viewed by 3
Abstract
Cadmium (Cd) is a persistent toxic metal that bioaccumulates in human tissues and may disrupt redox and endocrine pathways, yet the metabolic mechanisms linking Cd exposure to both endothelial and prostate dysfunctions remain insufficiently defined. This study investigated whether chronic occupational Cd exposure [...] Read more.
Cadmium (Cd) is a persistent toxic metal that bioaccumulates in human tissues and may disrupt redox and endocrine pathways, yet the metabolic mechanisms linking Cd exposure to both endothelial and prostate dysfunctions remain insufficiently defined. This study investigated whether chronic occupational Cd exposure alters methylated arginine metabolism and prostate-specific antigen (PSA) levels, indicating a shared toxicometabolic axis. A total of 150 male workers were enrolled, including 75 metallurgical employees with documented Cd exposure and 75 matched controls. All participants were non-smokers, eliminating confounding from tobacco-related oxidative or endocrine effects. Urinary Cd concentrations were quantified using Inductively Coupled Plasma–Mass Spectrometry (ICP–MS), and serum asymmetric dimethylarginine (ADMA), symmetric dimethylarginine (SDMA), L-arginine, citrulline, and PSA were measured by Liquid Chromatography Tandem Mass Spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) and electrochemiluminescence. The use of Inductively Coupled Plasma–Mass Spectrometry for arsenic quantification and LC-MS/MS for methylated arginine profiling provided high analytical specificity and sensitivity, strengthening the validity of biomarker measurements. Correlation and multivariable analyses adjusted for age and body mass index. Cd-exposed workers demonstrated significantly elevated urinary Cd, PSA, ADMA, and SDMA levels, alongside reduced arginine/ADMA ratios, consistent with impaired nitric oxide bioavailability. Urinary Cd strongly correlated with PSA and ADMA levels. These findings indicate that Cd may disrupt the nitric oxide pathway and elevates PSA, supporting a mechanistic link between vascular and prostate stress. Combined ADMA, SDMA, and PSA profiling may serve as an early biomarker panel for Cd-related metabolic injury in occupational settings. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Toxicity and Safety Assessment of Exposure to Heavy Metals)
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15 pages, 1537 KB  
Article
Effects of Prenatal Essential and Toxic Metal Exposure on Children’s Neurodevelopment: A Multi-Method Approach
by Xiruo Kou, Stefano Renzetti, Josefa Canals, Stefano Calza, Cristina Jardí and Victoria Arija
Toxics 2025, 13(11), 954; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics13110954 - 5 Nov 2025
Viewed by 829
Abstract
The impact of prenatal exposure to trace metal mixtures on children’s neurodevelopment remains debated. Many studies treat all trace metals as a single entity, overlooking the distinct biological roles of essential and toxic metals. This approach may highlight overall exposure but fails to [...] Read more.
The impact of prenatal exposure to trace metal mixtures on children’s neurodevelopment remains debated. Many studies treat all trace metals as a single entity, overlooking the distinct biological roles of essential and toxic metals. This approach may highlight overall exposure but fails to capture their differential effects on neurodevelopment. This study aims to examine the associations between prenatal exposure to essential and toxic metals and children’s cognitive development, focusing on their independent effects. A cohort of 201 mother–infant pairs was analyzed. Maternal urinary metal levels were measured at 12 weeks of gestation, and children’s neurodevelopment was assessed at 4 years using the Wechsler Preschool and Primary Scale of Intelligence and the Developmental Neuropsychological Assessment. Generalized Additive Models (GAM), Restricted Cubic Spline (RCS), and Weighted Quantile Sum (WQS) regression were applied. GAM identified non-linear associations between essential metals (manganese and molybdenum) and cognitive outcomes, including verbal comprehension index (VCI), working memory index, full-scale IQ, and general ability index, which were confirmed by RCS. No non-linear relationships were observed for toxic metals. WQS showed negative associations between toxic metals and VCI (b = −1.07), processing speed index (b = −0.98), vocabulary acquisition index (b = −1.25), and verbal fluency (b = −0.23), mainly driven by cadmium (Cd) and antimony (Sb). Essential metal mixtures were not associated with cognitive outcomes. Prenatal exposure to toxic metals negatively affects children’s cognitive and neuropsychological development. Reducing maternal exposure during pregnancy is essential for protecting offspring development. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Toxicity and Safety Assessment of Exposure to Heavy Metals)
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18 pages, 1047 KB  
Article
Heavy Metal Contamination in Yogurt from Lebanon: Evaluating Lead (Pb) and Cadmium (Cd) Concentrations Across Multiple Regions
by Sandra Sarkis, Rayan Kashmar, Nikolaos Tzenios, Maha Hoteit, Tony Tannous and Joseph Matta
Toxics 2025, 13(6), 499; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics13060499 - 13 Jun 2025
Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1971
Abstract
The toxicity of metals such as lead (Pb) and cadmium (Cd) makes heavy metal contamination in food products a major health concern. The aim of this study is to measure the levels of Pb and Cd in yogurt samples that were collected from [...] Read more.
The toxicity of metals such as lead (Pb) and cadmium (Cd) makes heavy metal contamination in food products a major health concern. The aim of this study is to measure the levels of Pb and Cd in yogurt samples that were collected from 11 distinct Lebanese locations and determine their compliance with the legal limits set by the European Commission (0.02 mg/kg for Pb and 0.005 mg/kg for Cd). A total of 165 yogurt samples were examined using atomic absorption spectrophotometry (AAS). Interestingly, the findings showed that 10.9% of samples had Pb concentrations over the allowable limit; the highest amounts were observed in Baalbeck-Hermel (0.118 mg/kg), North Area (0.125 mg/kg), and South Lebanon (0.115 mg/kg). In addition, the highest detected concentrations of Cd were found in North Area (0.094 mg/kg), Baalbeck-Hermel (0.076 mg/kg), and Akkar (0.042 mg/kg), with 14.5% of samples above the limit. The results show regional differences in contamination, which are probably caused by industrial emissions, agricultural activities, and environmental pollution. To better understand the potential health implications, the estimated daily intake (EDI) of Pb and Cd through yogurt consumption was calculated and compared to international health-based guidance values. Although the EDI values suggest a low risk from yogurt alone, the findings highlight the importance of cumulative exposure and emphasize the necessity of regular monitoring and stricter implementation of food safety laws to decrease exposure to heavy metals through dairy intake. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Toxicity and Safety Assessment of Exposure to Heavy Metals)
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17 pages, 2189 KB  
Article
The Metal Oxidation State in Cu, CuO, and Cu2O Nanoparticles Plays a Key Role in Toxicity to Sea Urchin Arbacia lixula, Paracentrotus lividus, and Sphaerechinus granularis Embryos
by Ivana Čarapar, Lara Jurković, Dijana Pavičić-Hamer, Andrej Jaklin, Maja Dutour Sikirić, Bojan Hamer and Daniel Mark Lyons
Toxics 2025, 13(6), 469; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics13060469 - 1 Jun 2025
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1053
Abstract
Copper-based nanoparticles (as Cu2O) are a key component in marine antifouling paints and, as coatings degrade, release nanoparticles that can affect a wide range of non-target organisms. This study investigates the impact of Cu2O nanoparticles on the early development [...] Read more.
Copper-based nanoparticles (as Cu2O) are a key component in marine antifouling paints and, as coatings degrade, release nanoparticles that can affect a wide range of non-target organisms. This study investigates the impact of Cu2O nanoparticles on the early development of urchins Arbacia lixula, Paracentrotus lividus and Sphaerechinus granularis, and benchmarks their toxicity against similarly sized Cu and CuO nanoparticles and ionic copper. Concentration-dependent toxicity was noted for all forms of copper at concentrations in the 1 to 5000 µg L−1 range. EC50 values after Cu2O exposure indicated that A. lixula (99 µg L−1) was generally more sensitive than the other two species, with EC50 values of 371 µg L−1 and 606 µg L−1 noted for S. granularis and P. lividus, respectively. The same trend across species was noted for both Cu and CuO, although these nanoparticles generally showed higher EC50 values, indicating lower toxicity compared to Cu2O. LC50 values qualitatively parallel the corresponding EC50 values, with Cu2O consistently the most toxic, while Cu was less harmful, and CuO did not reach LC50 at any concentration. Again, greatest lethality was noted in A. lixula. While copper ion release from Cu was much greater than from CuO and Cu2O, the latter showed similar or greater toxicity to developing embryos compared to Cu. This indicates that copper ions are not the sole driver of toxicity of Cu2O, but there may also be a contribution derived from Cu2O redox activity within cells or at membranes that negatively impact oxidative stress defence mechanisms and metabolic pathways. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Toxicity and Safety Assessment of Exposure to Heavy Metals)
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Review

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38 pages, 456 KB  
Review
Lithium—Occurrence and Exposure—A Review
by Manfred Sager
Toxics 2025, 13(7), 567; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics13070567 - 4 Jul 2025
Viewed by 3276
Abstract
This review contains a compilation of data about the occurrence, mining, refining, and biological actions of lithium, without claiming completeness of knowledge. This should give a baseline for judging future pollutions of environmental and agricultural items and human nutrition and may show still [...] Read more.
This review contains a compilation of data about the occurrence, mining, refining, and biological actions of lithium, without claiming completeness of knowledge. This should give a baseline for judging future pollutions of environmental and agricultural items and human nutrition and may show still existing gaps of screening. Emerging electromobility and use of computers leads to a steep increase in Li-based batteries, which are a source of hazardous waste unless recycled. Lack of recovery methods from effluents and sewage, however, will increase pollution with soluble Li-salts from increasing mining and waste in the future; therefore, biochemical effects of levels out of ambient range have been included. Many published data are hidden in multi-element tables, including the data of the author. Mobile fractions of soils and soil-to-plant transfer, as well as retainment in animal tissues, are low. A lot of data, starting from geology via soils, plants, water, and human nutrition, lead to a largely unknown average daily intake for men. With respect to nutrition of dairy cows, the contribution of Li from water was highest among all elements investigated, but only 4% of intake. Main sources for human nutrition are mineral water and table salt. Li is not labelled on mineral water bottles, nor table salt, which are the main sources. Though some data have been gathered, for human nutrition, the average daily intake is uncertain to estimate because some mineral waters are quite high in Li. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Toxicity and Safety Assessment of Exposure to Heavy Metals)
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