Critical Perspectives on Islamophobia: From Local to Global, From Individual to Institutional

A special issue of Religions (ISSN 2077-1444).

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (30 September 2021) | Viewed by 60201

Special Issue Editors


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Guest Editor
Centre for Hate Studies, School of Criminology, University of Leicester, Leicester LE1 7QA, UK
Interests: Islamophobia; anti-Muslim hate; hate crime; social policy; equality; far-right; extremism; counter-extremism policy
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E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
Centre for Hate Studies, School of Criminology, University of Leicester, Leicester LE1 7QA, UK
Interests: Islamophobia; anti-Muslim hate; hate crime; Muslims in Greece; mosque attacks

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

Coined by the term ‘Islamophobia’ a little more than two decades ago, physical and violent manifestations of anti-Muslim hatred have been recurrent over that same period of time as discursive and rhetorical expressions of the same phenomenon have become increasingly normalized.

This is evident in a number of different ways. At the localized level, Islamophobia manifests as a form of hate crime targeting individuals and communities: taking in verbal abuse and threats through intimidation and violence. So too have murders and acts of terrorism been motivated by Islamophobia as indeed have attacks on mosques, Islamic schools, Muslim-run businesses, and Muslim family homes.

At the national and international levels, discursive Islamophobia is evident in the speeches of politicians and presidents: routinely homogenizing all Muslims without differentiation to vilify them as terroristic, cultural, and religious ‘threats’ to ‘us’ and ‘our’ way of life. In the context of COVID-19, so too has that threat been biological, especially among an increasingly dynamic and diversified far right that has deployed Islamophobia in recent years for both ideological and political gain.

Maybe most concerning is the proliferation of policies seemingly premised on Islamophobic thinking and understandings or which seemingly reinforce and subsequently justify much the same. From travel bans from certain Muslim-majority countries through the banning of certain forms of religious attire and places of worship to counter-terrorism and counter-extremism approaches that are seen to unduly target Muslims and their communities.

This Special Issue critically investigates Islamophobia and the complexity of its myriad manifestations and expressions: from the local to the global, from the individual to the institutional. While noting the recent turn in the scholarly study of Islamophobia, this Special Issue recognizes the need to establish a ‘critical Islamophobia studies’ canon. Accordingly, this Special Issue affords a timely opportunity to engage critically with the phenomenon of Islamophobia from different disciplinary perspectives, in different geographical locations, in different social, political, and cultural contexts, and from the perspective of the individual, familial, communal, societal, institutional, or structural. So too is the intersection and overlap of these of equal import.

We therefore invite submissions from established and early career scholars and practitioners that have the potential to contribute new critical perspectives to this salient discussion. While maintaining a necessarily broad remit, some indicative topics for investigation might include: the experience of male victims of street-level Islamophobia; discourse analyses of mainstream political rhetoric; the investigation of ‘institutional Islamophobia(s)’; Islamophobia in the context of the Global South; children’s encounters with Islamophobia; Islamophobia in the era of COVID-19; and inter-community Islamophobia, e.g., Islamophobia emanating from within Sikh and Hindu communities. Far from exhaustive, submissions may engage with any aspect of the theme of the Special Issue, whether empirically, theoretically, and/or conceptually, and be from any discipline and geographical location.

Dr. Chris Allen
Ms. Christina Verousi
Guest Editors

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Keywords

  • Islamophobia
  • hate crime
  • discrimination
  • political discourse
  • anti-Muslim hate
  • counter-terrorism
  • religion
  • Islam
  • Muslims

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Published Papers (7 papers)

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Research

16 pages, 2241 KiB  
Article
Islamophobia in the West: A Critical Discourse Analysis of Imran Khan’s UNGA Speech
by Meesam Javaid, Mohsin Hassan Khan, Surinderpal Kaur and Farwa Qazalbash
Religions 2022, 13(4), 284; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel13040284 - 25 Mar 2022
Cited by 2 | Viewed by 14957
Abstract
The tragic and horrendous attack on the World Trade Center also served to construct an unmistakable shape to Islamophobia in the West. It worked as fuel for the already-lit fire of Islamophobia and aggravated the situation with numerous indiscriminate attacks on Muslims. The [...] Read more.
The tragic and horrendous attack on the World Trade Center also served to construct an unmistakable shape to Islamophobia in the West. It worked as fuel for the already-lit fire of Islamophobia and aggravated the situation with numerous indiscriminate attacks on Muslims. The situation worsened with George Bush’s unequivocal statement: “either you are with us or against us”. This was the call for a cultural war between the West and Muslims framed by the Us versus Them schemata. This research has analyzed the speech of Imran Khan which he delivered at the 74th session of the United Nations General Assembly, employing van Dijk’s Ideological Square Model with a specific focus on NVivo 12 Plus to inspect the magnitude of the impact of linguistic memorandums from authoritative institutes. The researchers have investigated the lexicalization of Khan’s speech to explore how he uses language to sketch the picture of the West as “them” parallel to “us”. His rhetoric is critically examined through the micro and macro-strategies of the Ideological Square Model. The findings reveal that instead of challenging and interrogating the Us versus Them schema that permeates Islamophobia, Khan himself uses the very same schema to show ideological differences between the West and Muslims. Full article
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18 pages, 364 KiB  
Article
Public Intellectuals and Islamophobia in Greek Society: Entrenching the Discourses of Fear
by Alexandros Sakellariou
Religions 2021, 12(11), 995; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel12110995 - 12 Nov 2021
Viewed by 3579
Abstract
The largest part of the existing literature with regard to Islamophobia in Greece focuses primarily on the policies, activities and discourse of politicians and political groups of the extreme right, Orthodox Church figures, state authorities, the media and the Internet. The purpose of [...] Read more.
The largest part of the existing literature with regard to Islamophobia in Greece focuses primarily on the policies, activities and discourse of politicians and political groups of the extreme right, Orthodox Church figures, state authorities, the media and the Internet. The purpose of this article is to cast light on an aspect which is frequently neglected in the study of Islamophobia, i.e., the role of public intellectuals, through a series of questions: Where do public intellectuals in Greece stand with regard to Islamophobia? What are the main themes in their public discourse with regard to Islam and Muslims? What is the role they play in the reproduction of Islamophobic views? Having in mind the debates over the concepts of Islamo-Fascism, Islamo-leftism, Islamophilia and Islamophobia, this article builds on the literature about the role of intellectuals in society with a special focus on their views about Islam. Analysing the discourse of three public intellectuals, the main argument is that Islamophobia in Greece is not an exclusive element of the extreme-right or the Orthodox Church. Self-proclaimed progressive or liberal intellectuals, through their public discourse, also contribute to the reproduction and entrenchment of the fear and moral panic about Islam. Full article
17 pages, 8403 KiB  
Article
Political Rhetoric and Hate Speech in the Case of Shamima Begum
by Alexander Murphy
Religions 2021, 12(10), 834; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel12100834 - 8 Oct 2021
Cited by 8 | Viewed by 7018
Abstract
The relationship between political rhetoric and hate crime has been a topic of growing concern in recent years, with the narratives promoted by politicians widely seen as legitimating and inspiring hate crime as well as soothing or inflaming the tensions that result from [...] Read more.
The relationship between political rhetoric and hate crime has been a topic of growing concern in recent years, with the narratives promoted by politicians widely seen as legitimating and inspiring hate crime as well as soothing or inflaming the tensions that result from antecedent hate crime events such as terrorist attacks. The potential return of so-called ‘IS bride’ Shamima Begum from a Syrian refugee camp in 2019, following her high-profile departure four years earlier, led to intense debate within the UK, particularly over the controversial removal of her citizenship by Home Secretary Sajid Javid. As an Islamist terrorism case with clear gendered dimensions, the Begum case was well-positioned to function as a hate crime trigger event. The divisiveness of this case was reflected in partisan political argument within the UK, and accompanied by high volumes of toxic and Islamophobic social media discussion alongside input from a variety of UK politicians. This paper offers a qualitative analysis of the political rhetoric promoted in the Twitter accounts of leading UK politicians in response to the citizenship decision, and subsequent developments between February and April 2019, such as the death of Begum’s child and the granting of legal aid to support her ongoing legal challenge. Through a Critical Discourse Analysis of politicians’ online rhetoric, this study aims to establish the contribution of UK political rhetoric to the hate speech discourses that emerged online in response to this case. Full article
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21 pages, 297 KiB  
Article
Muslim Stand-Up Comedy in the US and the UK: Incongruity, Everydayness, and Performativity
by Lamiae Aidi
Religions 2021, 12(10), 801; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel12100801 - 26 Sep 2021
Cited by 3 | Viewed by 6608
Abstract
The objectives of this article are two-fold: to provide a review of the major figures and trends in Muslim American comedy and discuss certain techniques and approaches that have been used by stand-up comedians to counter predominant and discriminatory perceptions of the “Other”. [...] Read more.
The objectives of this article are two-fold: to provide a review of the major figures and trends in Muslim American comedy and discuss certain techniques and approaches that have been used by stand-up comedians to counter predominant and discriminatory perceptions of the “Other”. To reiterate film critic Jack Shaheen’s argument in Reel Bad Arabs: How Hollywood Vilifies a People, the Western public is fed constructions of Islam as a “problem”; the terms “Arab” and “Muslim” are interchangeably used; Muslim men are depicted as “terrorists”; and Muslim women are depicted as “veiled and oppressed”. Much has been written on the generation and effect of stereotypes promoted by popular culture. However, stereotyped groups also use popular culture to speak for themselves. Popular culture also functions to resist, counter, push back against, and subvert stereotypes. In other words, the “Other” can speak for him or herself through popular culture as a means of contesting stereotypes that define Muslims and Arabs in terms of cultural and religious understandings that narrowly categorize individuals through attributes such as religiosity and femininity. This potential is being realized by second-generation Muslims familiar with the platforms created and provided by other marginalized groups in Anglo-American popular culture, and their work has come into its own especially in the aftermath of 9/11, a time that saw both the intensification of stereotypes and heightening of Muslim American consciousness. I concentrate on these specific stand-up comedians in the US and the UK, despite the fact that there are others in the diaspora who discuss Islamophobia, because these American and British comedians address all of the three most common stereotypes of Muslims: “Arab = Muslim”, the “terrorist”, and the “veiled and oppressed woman”. Full article
17 pages, 307 KiB  
Article
Problematising the Official Athens Mosque: Between Mere Place of Worship and 21st Century ‘Trojan Horse’
by Christina Verousi and Chris Allen
Religions 2021, 12(7), 485; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel12070485 - 29 Jun 2021
Cited by 5 | Viewed by 3456
Abstract
This article investigates the ‘problematisation’ of the recently inaugurated mosque in the city of Athens, the capital’s first ‘official’ mosque since the country was liberated from the Ottoman Empire almost two centuries ago. Building on and developing the existing scholarly literature on the [...] Read more.
This article investigates the ‘problematisation’ of the recently inaugurated mosque in the city of Athens, the capital’s first ‘official’ mosque since the country was liberated from the Ottoman Empire almost two centuries ago. Building on and developing the existing scholarly literature on the problematisation of mosques in the contemporary European setting, this article generates new knowledge by focusing on the Greco-specific context of that same problematisation: an amalgam of history, geography, religion and culture, that asymmetrically shape and inform how and why the new Athens mosque is—and indeed continues to be—a site of conflict and opposition. Presenting new empirical data, this article uses an innovative and original approach to bring together two separate pieces of fieldwork undertaken first-hand by the authors in 2001/2 and 2019/20. Analysing the two sets of data, a threefold thematic structure is employed that focuses on Greece’s history, Christian Orthodoxy and global terrorism. This article first explores the existing scholarly canon relating to the contemporary problematisation of mosques through a focused overview of Greece’s history, religion and culture appropriate to mosques and in part, Muslims and Islam. From there it sets out the findings from the two periods of fieldwork to illustrate and evidence discourses of opposition towards the mosque and how these serve to function both symbolically and tangibly. Using the thematic analysis, theories relating to the ideological processes of Islamophobia are deployed to elucidate a better understanding of the Athens mosque. In doing so, this article makes a timely contribution. Full article
17 pages, 2525 KiB  
Article
What Kind of Islamophobia? Representation of Muslims and Islam in Italian and Spanish Media
by Laura Cervi, Santiago Tejedor and Monica Gracia
Religions 2021, 12(6), 427; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel12060427 - 9 Jun 2021
Cited by 18 | Viewed by 10660
Abstract
News media play a crucial role in the production and reproduction of stereotypes, influencing public opinions regarding different groups and minorities. Thus, acquiring a deeper understanding of media coverage of Muslims and Islam is decisive for understanding the sources of public attitudes towards [...] Read more.
News media play a crucial role in the production and reproduction of stereotypes, influencing public opinions regarding different groups and minorities. Thus, acquiring a deeper understanding of media coverage of Muslims and Islam is decisive for understanding the sources of public attitudes towards Muslims. This study aims at displaying how Muslims and Islam are represented in Italian and Spanish media. Focusing on the online version of the two most influential newspapers in each country (El Mundo and El País for Spain and Il Corriere della Sera and La Repubblica for Italy) from 2015 to 2020, the results show how Muslims in both countries are mostly framed either related to terrorism or within the general discourse on immigration. In both cases, they are portrayed as “others”. The article also presents a novelty, defining and observing two different types of Islamophobia, Banal and Ontological Islamophobia. Full article
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13 pages, 242 KiB  
Article
Islamophobia: With or without Islam?
by Thomas Sealy
Religions 2021, 12(6), 369; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel12060369 - 21 May 2021
Cited by 12 | Viewed by 7535
Abstract
Islamophobia has been a controversial concept ever since it first gained popular currency. One of the main sticking points over the term is whether or not it refers to religion. For both detractors and advocates of the term alike, religion should be or [...] Read more.
Islamophobia has been a controversial concept ever since it first gained popular currency. One of the main sticking points over the term is whether or not it refers to religion. For both detractors and advocates of the term alike, religion should be or is removed from the meaning of Islamophobia, which is conceived as a form of anti-Muslim racism. Islam, we might say, is thereby removed from Islamophobia. Yet, in doing so, it falls short on two of its key objectives, i.e., identifying the particular forms of discrimination that Muslims face in society and subsequently providing a positive basis from which to address this discrimination. In this article, the question asked is if we should put Islam back into Islamophobia and, if so, on what basis? According to the existing literature as well as a study of converts to Islam, it is suggested that Islam as a religion is both an important feature of Islamophobia as well as central to the identities of many Muslims, and then it is suggested why and how we should think about including religion into the scope of thinking on Islamophobia and how it is addressed. Full article
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