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6 pages, 174 KiB

Open AccessEditorial

Archaeology of Ancient Israelite Religion(s): An Introduction

by Avraham Faust

Religions 2020, 11(6), 291; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel11060291 - 15 Jun 2020

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 3932

Abstract

Israelite religion has always fascinated scholars [...] Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Archaeology and Ancient Israelite Religion)

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11 pages, 250 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Archaeology and Folk or Family Religion in Ancient Israel

by William G. Dever

Religions 2019, 10(12), 667; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel10120667 - 12 Dec 2019

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 5685

Abstract

This article will summarize and interpret archaeological data that may be used to illuminate the religion of ancient Israel, ca. 1200–600 BCE, while using a phenomenal approach. The resultant portrait will be compared with one drawn from the texts of the Hebrew Bible, [...] Read more.

This article will summarize and interpret archaeological data that may be used to illuminate the religion of ancient Israel, ca. 1200–600 BCE, while using a phenomenal approach. The resultant portrait will be compared with one drawn from the texts of the Hebrew Bible, which suggests both convergences and significant differences. The conclusion will emphasize that archaeology does best in providing a real-life context for both artifact and texts. However, it is mostly limited to religious practice, rather than belief. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Archaeology and Ancient Israelite Religion)

19 pages, 11753 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Israelite Festivals: From Cyclical Time Celebrations to Linear Time Commemorations

by Zev I. Farber

Religions 2019, 10(5), 323; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel10050323 - 14 May 2019

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 6134

Abstract

The Pentateuch and later Jewish tradition associates the key pilgrimage festivals with stories about Israel’s past. Nevertheless, these festivals all began as agricultural or seasonal festivals. Using comparative evidence from the ancient Near East, and looking at the Covenant Collection, the earliest biblical [...] Read more.

The Pentateuch and later Jewish tradition associates the key pilgrimage festivals with stories about Israel’s past. Nevertheless, these festivals all began as agricultural or seasonal festivals. Using comparative evidence from the ancient Near East, and looking at the Covenant Collection, the earliest biblical law collection, through a redaction critical lens, we can uncover the early history of these festivals and even how they developed in stages. A similar process is evident with the Sabbath, which appears to have begun as a moon festival, as per certain biblical references and from comparative evidence, but which eventually developed into the seventh day of rest as part of the institution of the week, and then comes to be associated with the story of God resting after creation. These developments, from celebrating agricultural and lunar cycles to celebrating mnemohistorical events, can be seen as part of two parallel processes: the coalescing of Israelite cultural memory and the institution of the linear calendar as the dominant conception of time. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Archaeology and Ancient Israelite Religion)

17 pages, 6184 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Archaeology and Religion in Late Bronze Age Canaan

by Aaron Greener

Religions 2019, 10(4), 258; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel10040258 - 9 Apr 2019

Cited by 10 | Viewed by 16671

Abstract

Dozens of temples were excavated in the Canaanite city-states of the Late Bronze Age. These temples were the focal points for the Canaanites’ cultic activities, mainly sacrifices and ceremonial feasting. Numerous poetic and ritual texts from the contemporary city of Ugarit reveal the [...] Read more.

Dozens of temples were excavated in the Canaanite city-states of the Late Bronze Age. These temples were the focal points for the Canaanites’ cultic activities, mainly sacrifices and ceremonial feasting. Numerous poetic and ritual texts from the contemporary city of Ugarit reveal the rich pantheon of Canaanite gods and goddesses which were worshiped by the Canaanites. Archaeological remains of these rites include burnt animal bones and many other cultic items, such as figurines and votive vessels, which were discovered within the temples and sanctuaries. These demonstrate the diverse and receptive character of the Canaanite religion and ritual practices. It seems that the increased Egyptian presence in Canaan towards the end of the period had an influence on the local belief system and rituals in some areas, a fact which is demonstrated by the syncretic architectural plans of several of the temples, as well as by glyptic and votive items. Late Bronze Age religious and cultic practices have attracted much attention from Biblical scholars and researchers of the religion of Ancient Israel who are searching for the similarities and influences between the Late Bronze Age and the following Iron Age. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Archaeology and Ancient Israelite Religion)

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19 pages, 374 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Zooarchaeology of Israelite Religion: Methods and Practice

by Jonathan S. Greer

Religions 2019, 10(4), 254; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel10040254 - 7 Apr 2019

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 4141

Abstract

This essay aims to provide a methodological framework for the application of zooarchaeology to the study of Israelite religion for the purpose of providing an overview of this growing subfield for the non-specialist and for inviting further conversation among practitioners. Definitions of “zooarchaeology” [...] Read more.

This essay aims to provide a methodological framework for the application of zooarchaeology to the study of Israelite religion for the purpose of providing an overview of this growing subfield for the non-specialist and for inviting further conversation among practitioners. Definitions of “zooarchaeology” and “Israelite religion” are explored and the aim of reconstructing practices of Yahweh-centric religion is described. A methodology is suggested through a series of questions that may be applied to explorations of faunal remains, including those related to context, excavation technique and analysis, and engagement with the Hebrew Bible. The essay concludes with an illustration from Tel Dan and affirmation of integrated methodologies that critically engage archaeological and textual data to form new syntheses. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Archaeology and Ancient Israelite Religion)

18 pages, 1288 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Religion at Kuntillet ʿAjrud

by Jeremy Smoak and William Schniedewind

Religions 2019, 10(3), 211; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel10030211 - 19 Mar 2019

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 7082

Abstract

The discovery of early Hebrew inscriptions at the site of Kuntillet ʿAjrud has generated considerable discussion among scholars over the past few decades. The fact that the inscriptions contain explicitly religious themes led some to conclude that the site had a cultic function. [...] Read more.

The discovery of early Hebrew inscriptions at the site of Kuntillet ʿAjrud has generated considerable discussion among scholars over the past few decades. The fact that the inscriptions contain explicitly religious themes led some to conclude that the site had a cultic function. In the present article, we challenge this assumption and argue that the inscriptions with religious themes are embedded in daily life as religion converges with scribal curriculum in ancient Israel. The inscriptions provide insights into conceptions of the Israelite pantheon, divine theophany, and theomachy in early Israelian religious ideology. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Archaeology and Ancient Israelite Religion)

17 pages, 3126 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Temple of Solomon in Iron Age Context

by Yosef Garfinkel and Madeleine Mumcuoglu

Religions 2019, 10(3), 198; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel10030198 - 15 Mar 2019

Cited by 12 | Viewed by 13250

Abstract

1 Kings preserves a long and detailed description of the construction of a temple and palace in Jerusalem by King Solomon in the 10th century BCE. Previous generations of scholars accepted this description as an authentic account. Accordingly, much literature on this text [...] Read more.

1 Kings preserves a long and detailed description of the construction of a temple and palace in Jerusalem by King Solomon in the 10th century BCE. Previous generations of scholars accepted this description as an authentic account. Accordingly, much literature on this text and the relevant archeological discoveries has accumulated. Since the 1980s, skeptical approaches to the early part of the Kingdom of Judah, the biblical text, and the archaeological record have been expressed. Some scholars doubt whether any temple at all was constructed in Jerusalem in the 10th century BCE. In the last few years, the picture has been changed by new discoveries from two Judean sites: a building model of the early 10th century BCE from Khirbet Qeiyafa and an actual temple building of the 9th century BCE from Motza. In this article, we present the history of research, some aspects of the biblical text and the contribution of the new discoveries. These enable us to place in context both the biblical text and the building it describes. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Archaeology and Ancient Israelite Religion)

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34 pages, 10933 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Religion of the Ammonites: A Specimen of Levantine Religion from the Iron Age II (ca. 1000–500 BCE)

by Craig W. Tyson

Religions 2019, 10(3), 153; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel10030153 - 2 Mar 2019

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 17484

Abstract

In the Iron Age II (ca. 1000–500 BCE), the region around Amman, Jordan, was home to a sociopolitical group known as the Ammonites (literally, “the sons of Ammon”). This paper investigates the religious traditions of the Ammonites through an analysis of the extant [...] Read more.

In the Iron Age II (ca. 1000–500 BCE), the region around Amman, Jordan, was home to a sociopolitical group known as the Ammonites (literally, “the sons of Ammon”). This paper investigates the religious traditions of the Ammonites through an analysis of the extant archaeological and textual sources. The analysis leads to the conclusion that the religious tradition of the Ammonites is a specimen of the broader religious tradition of the Iron Age II Levant. One distinguishing feature of Ammonite religion is the state god Milkom, whose name is probably an epithet for the god ʾEl, and who appears to be represented in a tradition of stone sculptures that have been found in the vicinity of Amman. The rest of the non-physical realm was understood to be inhabited by gods, goddesses, a variety of other non-human beings, and dead ancestors. Also visible in the extant evidence is a blending of local and foreign elements, especially those from Mesopotamia. Unique in this respect is the probable temple to the moon-god at Rujm al-Kursi, which most likely reflects a local tradition of lunar worship influenced by the iconography of the Mesopotamian moon-god Sîn. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Archaeology and Ancient Israelite Religion)

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13 pages, 3653 KiB

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Iron Age Cultic Sites in Transjordan

by Margreet L. Steiner

Religions 2019, 10(3), 145; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel10030145 - 27 Feb 2019

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 5550

Abstract

In the area east of the river Jordan, eight Iron Age structures identified as cultic have been excavated. This paper presents the evidence as published and discusses the relevance of the cultic identification of the structures. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Archaeology and Ancient Israelite Religion)

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24 pages, 9007 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Moon, Rain, Womb, Mercy The Imagery of The Shrine Model from Tell el-Far‛ah North—Biblical Tirzah For Othmar Keel

by Irit Ziffer

Religions 2019, 10(2), 136; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel10020136 - 25 Feb 2019

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 10590

Abstract

The present article focuses on the imagery of the shrine model found at Tell el-Far‛ah North, Biblical Tirzah, seat of the ruling dynasty of the Northern Kingdom in the early days of the Israelite monarchy. It examines the multiplicity of connotations, changeability and [...] Read more.

The present article focuses on the imagery of the shrine model found at Tell el-Far‛ah North, Biblical Tirzah, seat of the ruling dynasty of the Northern Kingdom in the early days of the Israelite monarchy. It examines the multiplicity of connotations, changeability and ambiguity in the representation of the lunar crescent image in the figurative language of the ancient Near East. Finally, the article offers a reconstruction of the model’s place within the cult of the late 10th–early 9th century BCE. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Archaeology and Ancient Israelite Religion)

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11 pages, 3717 KiB

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Women in Israelite Religion: The State of Research Is All New Research

by Beth Alpert Nakhai

Religions 2019, 10(2), 122; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel10020122 - 19 Feb 2019

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 12246

Abstract

Historically, those studying Israelite religion have ignored the existence of women in Iron Age Israel (1200–587 BCE). They have, therefore, accounted neither for the religious beliefs of half of ancient Israel’s population nor for the responsibilities that women assumed for maintaining religious rituals [...] Read more.

Historically, those studying Israelite religion have ignored the existence of women in Iron Age Israel (1200–587 BCE). They have, therefore, accounted neither for the religious beliefs of half of ancient Israel’s population nor for the responsibilities that women assumed for maintaining religious rituals and traditions. Such reconstructions of Israelite religion are seriously flawed. Only in the last four decades have scholars, primarily women, begun to explore women’s essential roles in Israel’s religious culture. This article utilizes evidence from the Hebrew Bible and from archaeological sites throughout Israel. It demonstrates that some women had roles within the Jerusalem Temple. Most women, however, resided in towns and villages throughout the Land. There, they undertook responsibility for clan-based and community-based religious rituals and rites, including pilgrimage, seasonal festivals, rites of military victory, and rites of mourning. They fulfilled, as well, essential roles within the sphere of domestic or household religion. At home, they provided medico-magical healing for all family members, as well as care for women and babies throughout pregnancy, childbirth, and beyond. They, and the men in their communities, worshipped Yahweh, Israel’s primary deity, and the goddess Asherah, as well; for most people, these two divinities were inextricably linked. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Archaeology and Ancient Israelite Religion)

26 pages, 32995 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Israelite Temples: Where Was Israelite Cult Not Practiced, and Why

by Avraham Faust

Religions 2019, 10(2), 106; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel10020106 - 12 Feb 2019

Cited by 11 | Viewed by 8738

Abstract

Most scholars in the late 20th and early 21st century believed that cultic activity in the kingdoms of Israel and Judah was practiced in various temples that were scattered throughout the kingdoms. Still, a detailed study of the archaeological evidence on Israelite cult [...] Read more.

Most scholars in the late 20th and early 21st century believed that cultic activity in the kingdoms of Israel and Judah was practiced in various temples that were scattered throughout the kingdoms. Still, a detailed study of the archaeological evidence on Israelite cult reveals that Israelite cultic buildings were extremely rare, both in absolute terms and when compared to other ancient Near Eastern societies, suggesting that cultic activity in temples was the exception rather than the norm and that typical Israelite cult was practiced in the household and in other, non-temple settings. Hence, the evidence suggests that rather than viewing temples, like the one in Arad, as exemplifying typical cultic activity, they should be viewed as exceptions that require a special explanation. The first part of the article develops and updates the suggestion, first raised about ten years ago, that Israelite temples were indeed extremely rare. Given the ancient Near Eastern context, however, such practices seems to be exceptional, and the second part of the article will therefore explain why was such a unique pattern not identified in the past, and will suggest a possible explanation as to how was such an outstanding practice developed and adopted. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Archaeology and Ancient Israelite Religion)

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28 pages, 28568 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Philistine Cult and Religion According to Archaeological Evidence

by David Ben-Shlomo

Religions 2019, 10(2), 74; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel10020074 - 23 Jan 2019

Cited by 9 | Viewed by 15042

Abstract

The paper surveys and discusses the updated archaeological evidence for Philistine cult and religion, and cult and religion in Philistia during the Iron Age. The evidence can be related to public or official cult, represented in temple and shrine structures, and to that [...] Read more.

The paper surveys and discusses the updated archaeological evidence for Philistine cult and religion, and cult and religion in Philistia during the Iron Age. The evidence can be related to public or official cult, represented in temple and shrine structures, and to that coming from households, representing possibly more popular religion. The evidence of public cult, so far mostly from peripheral sites, includes largely cultural elements linked with the local Canaanite cult and religion. Yet, within households at the Philistine cities there is more evidence for cultic elements of Aegean affinity during Iron Age I. In particular, figurines and ceramic figurative vessels and objects will be discussed. It seems that the Philistine religion may have retained certain distinctive elements also during Iron Age II. Nevertheless, it is still difficult to reconstruct the details of the nature of the Philistine religion due to the limited amount of evidence and lack of textual records. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Archaeology and Ancient Israelite Religion)

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