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Using Mineral Chemistry to Characterize Ore-Forming Processes
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Using Mineral Chemistry to Characterize Ore-Forming Processes

A special issue of Minerals (ISSN 2075-163X). This special issue belongs to the section "Mineral Deposits".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: 31 August 2025 | Viewed by 10723

Special Issue Editors

Dr. Xinlu Hu

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
School of Earth Resources, China University of Geosciences, Wuhan 430074, China
Interests: economic geology; geochemistry; mineral exploration; petrology
Prof. Dr. Xinbiao Lv

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
School of Earth Resources, China University of Geosciences, Wuhan 430074, China
Interests: economic geology; mineral exploration
Prof. Dr. Yafei Wu

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
School of Earth Resources, China University of Geosciences, Wuhan 430074, China
Interests: gold mineralization; geochemistry; mineral microanalysis
Dr. Zhenjie Zhang

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
School of Earth Sciences and Resources, China University of Geosciences, Beijing 100083, China
Interests: big data and machine learning in geosciences; mapping mineral prospectivity; economic geology

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

An ore deposit is an aggregate of minerals that can be economically recoverable and utilized. Ore minerals and gangue minerals are products of ore-forming processes and indicators of ore genesis. The radioisotopes of minerals can provide insights into the ages of mineralization. The stable isotopes of minerals can indicate the nature and origin of ore metals and fluids. The chemical composition of minerals can reflect the original composition and evolution of ore fluids. Combined with the texture, generation, and paragenetic association of minerals, the ore-forming processes can be well constrained. Over the past thirty years, with rapid developments of geochemical and isotopic analysis techniques, the ages, sources, and detailed ore-forming processes of numerous ore deposits have been better understood, which are of great importance for mineral exploration.

This Special Issue is intended to present mineralogical, geochemical, isotopic, and geochronological studies aiming at constraining the ore-forming processes and mechanisms of various types of mineral deposits. We welcome original research, methods, and reviews regarding the genesis of mineral deposits. Potential topics include, but are not limited to, the following: (1) chemical analyses of minerals to reveal the evolution of ore fluids; (2) isotopic analyses of minerals to constrain the source of metallogenic materials and the age of ore deposits; (3) mineralogical characteristics of ore deposits; (4) fluid inclusions in minerals; (5) physical and chemical conditions of mineralization.

Dr. Xinlu Hu
Prof. Dr. Xinbiao Lv
Prof. Dr. Yafei Wu
Dr. Zhenjie Zhang
Guest Editors

Manuscript Submission Information

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Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a single-blind peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. Minerals is an international peer-reviewed open access monthly journal published by MDPI.

Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. The Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal is 2400 CHF (Swiss Francs). Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.

Keywords

  • geochemistry
  • mineralogy
  • isotope
  • mineralization
  • ore deposits
  • ore-forming process

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Published Papers (8 papers)

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Research

29 pages, 21967 KiB  
Article
Ore Genesis Based on Microtextural and Geochemical Evidence from the Hydrothermal As–Sb Mineralization of the Matra Deposit (Alpine Corsica, France)
by Danis Ionut Filimon, John A. Groff, Emilio Saccani and Maria Di Rosa
Minerals 2025, 15(8), 814; https://doi.org/10.3390/min15080814 (registering DOI) - 31 Jul 2025
Viewed by 165
Abstract
The Matra As–Sb deposit (Alpine Corsica, France) is hosted in the normal N–S trending Matra Fault. Sulfide minerals in ore consist of realgar, stibnite, and pyrite with minor orpiment and hörnesite. The gangue includes quartz, dolomite, and calcite. In this study, the microstructural [...] Read more.
The Matra As–Sb deposit (Alpine Corsica, France) is hosted in the normal N–S trending Matra Fault. Sulfide minerals in ore consist of realgar, stibnite, and pyrite with minor orpiment and hörnesite. The gangue includes quartz, dolomite, and calcite. In this study, the microstructural analysis of selected ore samples has been combined with the geochemical characterization of the sulfides. The results depict a succession of events that record the evolution of the ore deposit related to fault movement. In the pre–ore stage, plumose, crustiform, jigsaw, and feathery textures of quartz testify to a short–lived boiling event. The mineral assemblage of the main–ore stage includes an Fe(–Zn) substage dominated by the formation of different textures of pyrite. In general, pyrite samples contain significant concentrations of As (≤32,231 ppm) and Sb (≤10,684 ppm), with lesser amounts of by Tl (≤1257 ppm) and Ni (≤174 ppm). This is followed by an Sb–As–Fe substage of pyrite–stibnite–realgar ±orpiment. The precipitation of the sulfides was mainly driven by changes in ƒS2. The increasing level of oxidation is attributed to a progressive influx of meteoric water resulting from reactivation of the Matra Fault. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Using Mineral Chemistry to Characterize Ore-Forming Processes)
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23 pages, 12729 KiB  
Article
Genetic Mineralogical Characteristics of Pyrite and Quartz from the Qiubudong Silver Deposit, Central North China Craton: Implications for Ore Genesis and Exploration
by Wenyan Sun, Jianling Xue, Zhiqiang Tong, Xueyi Zhang, Jun Wang, Shengrong Li and Min Wang
Minerals 2025, 15(8), 769; https://doi.org/10.3390/min15080769 - 22 Jul 2025
Viewed by 267
Abstract
The Qiubudong silver deposit on the western margin of the Fuping ore cluster in the central North China Craton is a representative breccia-type deposit characterized by relatively high-grade ores, thick mineralized zones, and extensive alteration, indicating considerable potential for economic resource development and [...] Read more.
The Qiubudong silver deposit on the western margin of the Fuping ore cluster in the central North China Craton is a representative breccia-type deposit characterized by relatively high-grade ores, thick mineralized zones, and extensive alteration, indicating considerable potential for economic resource development and further exploration. Previous studies on this deposit have not addressed its genetic mineralogical characteristics. This study focuses on pyrite and quartz to investigate their typomorphic features, such as crystal morphology, trace element composition, thermoelectric properties, and luminescence characteristics, and their implications for ore-forming processes. Pyrite crystals are predominantly cubic in early stages, while pentagonal dodecahedral and cubic–dodecahedral combinations peak during the main mineralization stage. The pyrite is sulfur-deficient and iron-rich, enriched in Au, and relatively high in Ag, Cu, Pb, and Bi contents during the main ore-forming stage. Rare earth element (REE) concentrations are low, with weak LREE-HREE fractionation and a strong negative Eu anomaly. The thermoelectric coefficient of pyrite ranges from −328.9 to +335.6 μV/°C, with a mean of +197.63 μV/°C; P-type conduction dominates, with an occurrence rate of 58%–100% and an average of 88.78%. A weak–low temperature and a strong–high temperature peak characterize quartz thermoluminescence during the main mineralization stage. Fluid inclusions in quartz include liquid-rich, vapor-rich, and two-phase types, with salinities ranging from 10.11% to 12.62% NaCl equiv. (average 11.16%) and densities from 0.91 to 0.95 g/cm3 (average 0.90 g/cm3). The ore-forming fluids are interpreted as F-rich, low-salinity, low-density hydrothermal fluids of volcanic origin at medium–low temperatures. The abundance of pentagonal dodecahedral pyrite, low Co/Ni ratios, high Cu contents, and complex quartz thermoluminescence signatures are key mineralogical indicators for deep prospecting. Combined with thermoelectric data and morphological analysis, the depth interval around 800 m between drill holes ZK3204 and ZK3201 has high mineralization potential. This study fills a research gap on the genetic mineralogy of the Qiubudong deposit and provides a scientific basis for deep exploration. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Using Mineral Chemistry to Characterize Ore-Forming Processes)
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24 pages, 8945 KiB  
Article
Chronological and Geochemical Characteristics of a Newly Discovered Biotite Granite Porphyry in the Zhuxi W-Cu Polymetallic Deposit, Jiangxi Province, South China: Implications for Cu Mineralization
by Yongpeng Ouyang, Qi Chen, Runling Zeng and Tongfei Li
Minerals 2025, 15(6), 624; https://doi.org/10.3390/min15060624 - 9 Jun 2025
Viewed by 309
Abstract
Multiple occurrences of adakitic rocks, with crystallization ages clustering around ~160 Ma, have been documented in the Zhuxi district, northeast Jiangxi Province, South China. This research identifies a new adakitic biotite granite porphyry within the Zhuxi W-Cu polymetallic deposit. Zircon U-Pb geochronology of [...] Read more.
Multiple occurrences of adakitic rocks, with crystallization ages clustering around ~160 Ma, have been documented in the Zhuxi district, northeast Jiangxi Province, South China. This research identifies a new adakitic biotite granite porphyry within the Zhuxi W-Cu polymetallic deposit. Zircon U-Pb geochronology of this porphyry yields a crystallization age of 161.6 ± 2.1 Ma. Integrated with previously published data, the adakitic rocks in the study area—comprising diorite porphyrite, biotite quartz monzonite porphyry, and the newly identified biotite granite porphyry—are predominantly calc-alkaline and peraluminous. They exhibit enrichment in light rare-earth elements (LREEs) and depletion in heavy rare-earth elements (HREEs), with slight negative Eu anomalies. The trace element patterns are characterized by enrichment in Ba, U, K, Pb, and Sr, alongside negative Nb, Ta, P, and Ti anomalies, indicative of arc-like magmatic signatures. Comparative analysis of geological and geochemical characteristics suggests that these three rock types are not comagmatic. Petrogenesis of the Zhuxi adakitic suite is linked to a dynamic tectonic regime involving Mesozoic crustal thickening, subsequent delamination, and lithospheric extension. Asthenospheric upwelling likely triggered partial melting of the overlying metasomatized lithospheric mantle, generating primary mantle-derived magmas. Underplating and advection of heat by these magmas induced partial melting of the thickened lower crust, forming the biotite granite porphyry. Partial melting of delaminated lower crustal material, interacting with the asthenosphere or asthenosphere-derived melts, likely generated the diorite porphyrite. The biotite quartz monzonite porphyry is interpreted to have formed from mantle-derived magmas that underwent assimilation of, or mixing with, silicic crustal melts during ascent. The ~160 Ma crystallization ages of these adakitic rocks are broadly contemporaneous with W-Mo mineralization in the Taqian mining area of the Zhuxi district. Furthermore, their geochemical signatures imply a prospective metallogenic setting for Cu-Mo mineralization around this period in the Taqian area. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Using Mineral Chemistry to Characterize Ore-Forming Processes)
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28 pages, 9029 KiB  
Article
Petrogenesis, Geochemistry, and Geological Significance of the Kongco Granitic Porphyry Dykes in the Northern Part of the Central Lhasa Microblock, Tibet
by Anping Xiang, Hong Liu, Wenxin Fan, Qing Zhou, Hong Wang and Kaizhi Li
Minerals 2025, 15(3), 283; https://doi.org/10.3390/min15030283 - 11 Mar 2025
Viewed by 780
Abstract
The Kongco area of Nima in the northern part of the Lhasa terrane has a suite of alkaline granitic porphyry dykes associated with Early Cretaceous granites and accompanied by Cu/Mo mineralization. LA-ICP-MS 206Pb/238U zircon geochronology performed on the dykes produced [...] Read more.
The Kongco area of Nima in the northern part of the Lhasa terrane has a suite of alkaline granitic porphyry dykes associated with Early Cretaceous granites and accompanied by Cu/Mo mineralization. LA-ICP-MS 206Pb/238U zircon geochronology performed on the dykes produced an age of 104.15 ± 0.94 Ma (MSWD = 0.98), indicating the Early Cretaceous emplacement of the dykes. The dykes exhibit high silica (SiO2 = 76.22~77.90 wt.%), high potassium (K2O = 4.97~6.21 wt.%), high alkalinity (K2O + Na2O = 8.07~8.98 wt.%), low calcium (CaO = 0.24~0.83 wt.%), low magnesium (MgO = 0.06~0.20 wt.%), and moderate aluminum content (Al2O3 = 11.93~12.45 wt.%). The Rieterman index (σ) ranges from 1.93 to 2.34. A/NK (molar ratio Al2O3/(Na2O + K2O)) and A/CNK (molar ratio Al2O3/(CaO + Na2O + K2O)) values of the dykes range from 1.06 to 1.18 and 0.98 to 1.09, respectively. The dykes are relatively enriched in Rb, Th, U, K, Ta, Ce, Nd, Zr, Hf, Sm, Y, Yb, and Lu, and they show a noticeable relative depletion in Ba, Nb, Sr, P, Eu, and Ti, as well as an average differentiation index (DI) of 96.42. The dykes also exhibit high FeOT/MgO ratios (3.60~10.41), Ga/Al ratios (2.22 × 10−4~3.01 × 10−4), Y/Nb ratios (1.75~2.40), and Rb/Nb ratios (8.36~20.76). Additionally, they have high whole-rock Zr saturation temperatures (884~914 °C), a pronounced Eu negative anomaly (δEu = 0.04~0.23), and a rightward-sloping “V-shaped” rare earth element pattern. These characteristics suggest that the granitic porphyry dykes can be classified as A2-type granites formed in a post-collisional tectonic environment and that they are weakly peraluminous, high-potassium, and Calc-alkaline basaltic rocks. Positive εHf(t) values = 0.43~3.63 and a relatively young Hf crustal model age (TDM2 = 826~1005 Ma, 87Sr/86Sr ratios = 0.7043~0.7064, and εNd(t) = −8.60~−2.95 all indicate lower crust and mantle mixing. The lower crust and mantle mixing model is also supported by (206Pb/204Pb)t = 18.627~18.788, (207Pb/204Pb)t = 15.707~15.719, (208Pb/204Pb)t = 39.038~39.110). Together, the Hf, Sr and Pb isotopic ratios indicate that the Kongco granitic porphyry dykes where derived from juvenile crust formed by the addition of mantle material to the lower crust. From this, we infer that the Kongco granitic porphyry dykes are related to a partial melting of the lower crust induced by subduction slab break-off and asthenospheric upwelling during the collision between the Qiangtang and Lhasa terranes and that they experienced significant fractional crystallization dominated by potassium feldspar and amphibole. These dykes are also accompanied by significant copper mineralization (five samples, copper content 0.2%), suggesting a close relationship between the magmatism associated with these dykes and regional metallogenesis, indicating a high potential for mineral exploration. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Using Mineral Chemistry to Characterize Ore-Forming Processes)
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38 pages, 14520 KiB  
Article
Mineralogy and Geochemistry of Titaniferous Iron Ores in El-Baroud Layered Gabbros: Fe-Ti Ore Genesis and Tectono-Metallogenetic Setting
by Mohamed Zaki Khedr, Ahmed Moftah, N. H. El-Shibiny, Akihiro Tamura, Wei Tan, Yuji Ichiyama, Eiichi Takazawa, Ali Y. Kahal and Kamal Abdelrahman
Minerals 2024, 14(7), 679; https://doi.org/10.3390/min14070679 - 29 Jun 2024
Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1997
Abstract
The Neoproterozoic pyroxene gabbros and gabbronorites in the El-Baroud mafic intrusion in the Northern Eastern Desert (NED) of Egypt host Fe-Ti oxide ore deposits. This study discusses the major and trace elements of both titaniferous iron ores and their host rocks, along with [...] Read more.
The Neoproterozoic pyroxene gabbros and gabbronorites in the El-Baroud mafic intrusion in the Northern Eastern Desert (NED) of Egypt host Fe-Ti oxide ore deposits. This study discusses the major and trace elements of both titaniferous iron ores and their host rocks, along with the mineral chemistry (major and in situ trace elements) of interstitial clinopyroxene (Cpx), to gain a deeper understanding of the Fe-Ti oxide genesis. These ores occur as disseminated (55–60 vol.% of Fe-Ti oxides) and massive types (85–95 vol.%) in the form of the dyke, layer, and lens. They are composed of titanomagnetite (80–87 vol.%) with subordinate ilmenite (10–15 vol.%) and magnetite (3–5 vol.%), in accordance with their high Fe2O3 (75.66 wt.% on average) and TiO2 contents (16.30–17.60 wt.%). The Cpx in the investigated ores is diopside composition (Mg#; 0.72–0.83) and exhibits a nearly convex upward REE pattern, similar to Cpxs in the ferropicrite that originated from the primitive mantle. Melts in equilibrium with this Cpx resemble Greenstone ferropicrite melts; the parent melt of El-Baroud gabbros is possibly a ferropicritic melt that was derived from the lithospheric mantle during plume interaction. The El-Baroud gabbroic rocks were generated during the arc rifting and crystallized under a high oxygen fugacity at a temperature of 800–1000 °C and a pressure of 3 kbar with a depth of 12 km. The Fe-Ti oxide ores have been formed from ferropicritic parent melts by two processes, including in situ crystallization that leads to the formation of disseminated Fe-Ti oxides in the iron-rich gabbros at the bottom and liquid immiscibility that is responsible for the formation of thick Fe-Ti ore lenses and layers at the top of the gabbroic intrusion. Initially, titanomagnetite crystallized from the primary Ti-rich oxide melt. As cooling progressed, some of the excess titanium in this melt was exsolved in the form of the exsolution ilmenite lamellae within the titanomagnetite. The Fe-Ti oxide layers in the NED follow the trend of NW-SE (Najd trend), where their distribution is possibly controlled by the composition of parent melts (rich in Ti and Fe), high oxygen fugacity, and the structure related to the Najd fault system. The distribution of Fe-Ti oxide ores increases from the NED to the Southern Eastern Desert (SED), suggesting the dominant mantle plumes and/or shear zones in the SED relative to the NED. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Using Mineral Chemistry to Characterize Ore-Forming Processes)
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14 pages, 6673 KiB  
Article
In Situ Carbonate U-Pb Dating of Gold and Mercury Deposits in the Youjiang Metallogenic Province, SW China, and Implications for Multistage Mineralization
by Jinwei Li, Yuzhou Zhuo, Yitong Guo, Xinyue Lu and Xinlu Hu
Minerals 2024, 14(7), 669; https://doi.org/10.3390/min14070669 - 28 Jun 2024
Viewed by 1282
Abstract
The Youjiang metallogenic province (YMP) is a famous ore-concentrating area in South China, known for its substantial Carlin-type gold deposits, antimony deposits, and mercury deposits. Previous studies have yielded conflicting views regarding the ages of mineralization in this area, particularly regarding the occurrence [...] Read more.
The Youjiang metallogenic province (YMP) is a famous ore-concentrating area in South China, known for its substantial Carlin-type gold deposits, antimony deposits, and mercury deposits. Previous studies have yielded conflicting views regarding the ages of mineralization in this area, particularly regarding the occurrence of Yanshanian versus Indosinian ore-forming events during the Mesozoic era. To resolve these discrepancies, this study utilized in situ LA-ICP-MS U-Pb dating on carbonate minerals from the Lannigou Carlin-type Au deposit, the Lanmuchang Hg-(Tl) deposit, and the Sixiangchang Hg deposit to accurately determine their mineralization ages. Our results indicate that the three deposits formed at 137 ± 9 Ma, ~97 Ma, and 454 ± 21 Ma, respectively. By integrating previously reported geochronological data, we propose that the low-temperature Au-As-Sb-Hg-Tl deposits in the YMP were formed during two major periods, Late Triassic and Late Jurassic to Cretaceous, with the latter being more prevalent. Additionally, there was a Paleozoic hydrothermal mercury mineralization event at the northeastern edge of this region. These newly acquired data significantly enhance our understanding of multistage, low-temperature mineralization events in the YMP. Our study also demonstrates that in situ carbonate U-Pb dating is an excellent method for investigating the timing of low-temperature mineralization events. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Using Mineral Chemistry to Characterize Ore-Forming Processes)
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15 pages, 6811 KiB  
Article
Petrogenesis of the Dalaku’an Mafic–Ultramafic Intrusion in the East Kunlun, Xinjiang: Constraints from the Mineralogy of Amphiboles
by Yazhou Fan, Yali Deng, Zhaode Xia, Minghao Ren and Jianhan Huang
Minerals 2024, 14(7), 651; https://doi.org/10.3390/min14070651 - 26 Jun 2024
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1941
Abstract
The Dalaku’an mafic–ultramafic intrusion, located in the western segment of the East Kunlun, presents conducive conditions for the magmatic Cu-Ni sulfide deposits. According to the detailed petrographic observation, the amphiboles within distinct rock types were analyzed by EPMA analysis. The crystallization conditions, such [...] Read more.
The Dalaku’an mafic–ultramafic intrusion, located in the western segment of the East Kunlun, presents conducive conditions for the magmatic Cu-Ni sulfide deposits. According to the detailed petrographic observation, the amphiboles within distinct rock types were analyzed by EPMA analysis. The crystallization conditions, such as temperature, pressure, oxygen fugacity, and water content of the magma, were calculated to explore the genesis of the intrusion. The amphiboles were divided into three types: Amp-I, characterized by low silicon content but enrichment of aluminum, titanium, and alkali, predominantly comprising Tschermakitic hornblende and Magnesio-hornblende with mantle-derived traits; Amp-II, exhibiting elevated silicon content but diminished levels of aluminum, titanium, and alkali, primarily constituted of Magnesio-hornblende; whereas Amp-III manifests as Actinolitic hornblende, indicative of crustal origins. The calculated temperatures of amphiboles ranged between Amp-I (955–880) °C, Amp-II (852–774) °C, and Amp-III (761–760) °C; the pressures ranged between Amp-I (454–274) MPa, Amp-II (194–93) MPa, and Amp-III (101–84) MPa; the oxygen fugacities (△NNO) ranged between Amp-I (0.93–2.17), Amp-II (1.55–2.52), and Amp-III (1.89); and the water contents (H2Omelt) ranged from (6.69–8.67) to (5.90–7.32). The magma experienced multiple stages of crystallization and underwent complex magma evolution at different depths. The high oxygen fugacity and water content could be attributed to the subduction of the oceanic crust. The magma source of the Dalaku’an intrusion was metasomatized by fluids from subducting plates, thereby originating within a post-collision extension. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Using Mineral Chemistry to Characterize Ore-Forming Processes)
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16 pages, 6976 KiB  
Article
Geology and Geochronology of Magmatic–Hydrothermal Breccia Pipes in the Yixingzhai Gold Deposit: Implications for Ore Genesis and Regional Exploration
by Li-Zhong Zhang, Wen-Sheng Gao and Xiao-Dong Deng
Minerals 2024, 14(5), 496; https://doi.org/10.3390/min14050496 - 8 May 2024
Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2389
Abstract
Magmatic–hydrothermal breccia pipes are widespread in numerous major porphyry and epithermal gold deposits globally, representing significant repositories of metal resources and serving as potential indicators for exploration targeting. More than ten breccia pipes occur in the Central Taihangshan District (CTD) of the North [...] Read more.
Magmatic–hydrothermal breccia pipes are widespread in numerous major porphyry and epithermal gold deposits globally, representing significant repositories of metal resources and serving as potential indicators for exploration targeting. More than ten breccia pipes occur in the Central Taihangshan District (CTD) of the North China Craton. Some of these breccia pipes host gold mineralization and are proposed to be related to the adjacent lode gold mineralization. However, the lack of detailed geological constraints make this hypothesis ambiguous. To address this, the present study conducted comprehensive field observations, drill core logging, an in situ sulfur isotope analysis of pyrite, and the 40Ar/39Ar dating of adularia along a 1400 m section of the Tietangdong breccia pipe at Yixingzhai. Three distinct breccia facies were identified at Tietangdong, exhibiting variable proportions across the entire section, including a massive skarn breccia; polymictic, skarn matrix-supported breccia; and polymictic, intrusive rock cement chaotic breccia. Furthermore, adularia 40Ar/39Ar dating indicates a syn-/post-gold mineralization age of 136 ± 1.5 Ma, coinciding with the age of post-breccia felsite dike. The deepest sampled pyrite displays δ34S values of ~2.7‰, strongly indicating a magmatic–hydrothermal signature. These results, when combined with the geological, geochronological, and isotopic studies on the adjacent lode gold mineralization, further suggest a close genetic relationship between the breccia pipes and the lode Au mineralization, paving the way for their utilization as effective indicators for gold targeting within the CTD. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Using Mineral Chemistry to Characterize Ore-Forming Processes)
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