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Rare Metal and Related Deposits: Geology, Geochemistry and Mineralization

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A special issue of Minerals (ISSN 2075-163X). This special issue belongs to the section "Mineral Deposits".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (30 July 2024) | Viewed by 11472

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Dr. Zhenjiang Liu

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Guest Editor

School of Earth Sciences and Resources, China University of Geosciences, Beijing 100083, China
Interests: ore geology; economic geology; mineral exploration; applied mineralogy; mineralization; isotope geochemistry

Dr. Fangfang Zhang

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Guest Editor

School of Earth Sciences and Resources, China University of Geosciences, Beijing 100083, China
Interests: geochemistry; economic geology

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Dear Colleagues,

Rare metal deposits are geological formations containing high concentrations of certain elements or minerals, including lithium, tantalum, niobium, tin, tungsten, and more. These elements are crucial for various high-tech applications and strategic industries. Rare metal deposits are formed due to magmatic–hydrothermal processes associated with granitic intrusions, especially highly fractionated granites. Rare metal mineralization may occur in various types of rocks, such as pegmatites, greisens, veins, skarns, etc. Several factors, such as the source of the magma, degree of fractionation, fluid composition and evolution, tectonic setting, and timing of the events influence the formation of rare metal deposits. The study of rare metal deposits can provide insights into the petrogenesis of granites, the evolution of the crust and mantle, and the geodynamics of orogenic belts. Due to their complex mineralogy, geochemistry, and ore genesis, the exploration and exploitation of rare metal deposits pose significant challenges.

Dr. Zhenjiang Liu
Dr. Fangfang Zhang
Guest Editors

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Keywords

rare metal deposit
magmatic–hydrothermal processes
granitic intrusions
magmatic differentiation
ore mineralogy
mineral geochemistry
hydrothermal alteration
geochronology
ore-forming process
tectonic setting

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Published Papers (9 papers)

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Research

19 pages, 10062 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Geochronology and Genesis of the Shuigou Gold Deposit, Qixia-Penglai-Fushan Metallogenic Area, Jiaodong Peninsula, Eastern China: Constraints from SHRIMP U-Pb, ⁴⁰Ar/³⁹Ar Age, and He-Ar Isotopes

by Zhenjiang Liu, Shaobo Cheng, Changrong Liu, Benjie Gu and Yushan Xue

Minerals 2025, 15(1), 14; https://doi.org/10.3390/min15010014 - 26 Dec 2024

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 680

Abstract

The Jiaodong Peninsula is renowned for its significant gold reserves, which exceed 4500 tons. In this study, we conducted zircon SHRIMP U-Pb dating, ⁴⁰Ar/³⁹Ar geochronology, electron probe microanalysis (EPMA) analysis, and He-Ar isotope analysis on samples from the Shuigou gold deposit located in the Qixia-Penglai-Fushan metallogenic area of central Jiaodong. This quartz vein-type gold deposit is characterized by three mineralization stages: (I) the quartz-pyrite stage, (II) the quartz-polymetallic sulfide stage, and (III) the calcite stage. In stages I and II, gold primarily exists as native gold or electrum. Preliminary analysis suggests that the deposit contains rare critical metals, including bismuth (Bi), tellurium (Te), and antimony (Sb). The Sb is found as pyrargyrite in stage III, while the other critical elements occur as isomorphisms or nanoparticles within host minerals such as pyrite, native gold, and electrum. Geochronology data indicate that the pre-mineralization Guojialing monzogranite formed around 126 ± 1.6 Ma, the syn-mineralization muscovite formed at approximately 125 Ma, and the post-mineralization diorite porphyrite formed at 120.4 ± 1.8 Ma. The ³He/⁴He ratios of fluid inclusions in the main-stage pyrite range from 0.26 to 1.26 Ra, and the ⁴⁰Ar/³⁶Ar ratios vary from 383 to 426.6. These findings suggest that the Shuigou gold deposit formed during the destruction of the North China Craton (NCC), similar to other super-large gold deposits in the Jiaodong Mesozoic gold metallogenic province. Gold mineralization has been influenced by mantle, crustal, and meteoric fluids. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Rare Metal and Related Deposits: Geology, Geochemistry and Mineralization)

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30 pages, 7429 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Isotope Geochemistry and Metallogenic Model of the Bailugou Vein-Type Zn-Pb-Ag Deposit, Eastern Qinling Orogen, China

by Yan Yang, Hui Chen, Nana Guo, Donghao Wu, Zhenshan Pang and Yanjing Chen

Minerals 2024, 14(12), 1244; https://doi.org/10.3390/min14121244 - 6 Dec 2024

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 754

Abstract

The large-scale vein-type Zn-Pb-Ag deposit in the Eastern Qinling Orogen (EQO) has sparked a long-standing debate over whether magmatism or metamorphism was the primary control or factor in its formation. Among the region’s vein-type deposits, the large-sized Bailugou deposit offers a unique opportunity to study this style of mineralization. Similar to other deposits in the area, the vein-type orebodies of the Bailugou deposit are hosted in dolomitic marbles (carbonate–shale–chert association, CSC) of the Mesoproterozoic Guandaokou Group. Faults control the distribution of the Bailugou deposit but do not show apparent spatial links to the regional Yanshanian granitic porphyry. This study conducted comprehensive H–O–C–S–Pb isotopic analyses to constrain the sources of the ore-forming metals and metal endowments of the Bailugou deposit. The δ³⁴S_CDT values of sulfides range from 1.1‰ to 9.1‰ with an average of 4.0‰, indicating that the sulfur generated from homogenization during the high-temperature source acted on host sediments. The Pb isotopic compositions obtained from 31 sulfide samples reveal that the lead originated from the host sediments rather than from the Mesozoic granitic intrusions. The results indicate that the metals for the Bailugou deposit were jointly sourced from host sediments of the Mid-Late Proterozoic Meiyaogou Fm. and the Nannihu Fm. of the Luanchuan Group and Guandaokou Group, as well as lower crust and mantle materials. The isotopic composition of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen collectively indicate that the metallogenic constituents of the Bailugou deposit were contributed by ore-bearing surrounding rocks, lower crust, and mantle materials. In summary, the study presents a composite geologic-metallogenic model suggesting that the Bailugou mineral system, along with other lead-zinc-silver deposits, porphyry-skarn molybdenum-tungsten deposits, and the small granitic intrusions in the Luanchuan area, are all products of contemporaneous hydrothermal diagenetic mineralization. This mineralization event transpired during a continental collision regime between the Yangtze and the North China Block (including syn- to post-collisional settings), particularly during the transition from collisional compression to extension around 140 Ma. The Bailugou lead-zinc-silver mineralization resembles an orogenic-type deposit formed by metamorphic fluid during the Yanshanian Orogeny. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Rare Metal and Related Deposits: Geology, Geochemistry and Mineralization)

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26 pages, 8215 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Genesis of the Bailugou Vein-Type Zinc-Lead-Silver Deposit, Eastern Qinling Orogen, China: Constraints from Ore Geology and Fluid Inclusions

by Yan Yang, Nana Guo, Hui Chen, Donghao Wu, Zhenshan Pang and Yanjing Chen

Minerals 2024, 14(11), 1119; https://doi.org/10.3390/min14111119 - 4 Nov 2024

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 872

Abstract

The Bailugou vein-type zinc-lead-silver deposit is located in the Eastern Qinling Orogen, China. There has been a long-standing debate about whether its formation is related to magmatism or metamorphism. To determine the origin of ore-forming materials and fluids, we conducted a geological and fluid inclusion investigation of the Bailugou. Field surveys show that the vein-type orebodies are controlled by faults in the dolomitic marbles of the Mesoproterozoic Guandaokou Group, and they are distal to the regional Yanshanian intrusions. Four ore stages, i.e., quartz–pyrite ± sphalerite (Stage 1), quartz–polymetallic sulfides (Stage 2), dolomite–polymetallic sulfides (Stage 3), and calcite (Stage 4), are identified through microscopic observation. The homogenization temperatures of measured fluid inclusions vary in the range of 100 °C to 400 °C, with the dominating concentration at 350 °C to 400 °C, displaying a descending trend from early to late stages. The estimated formation depth of the Bailugou deposit varies from 2 km to 12 km, which is deeper than the metallogenic limit of the epithermal hydrothermal deposit but conforms to the typical characteristics of a fault-controlled deposit. The ore-forming fluid in Stage 1 originates from a fluid mixture and experiences a phase separation (or fluid immiscibility) between the metamorphic-sourced fluid and the fluids associated with ore-bearing carbonate-shale-chert association (CSC) strata. This process results in the transition to metamorphic hydrothermal fluid due to water–rock interactions in Stage 2, culminating in gradual weakening and potential fluid boiling during the mineralization of Stage 3. Collectively, the Bailugou lead-zinc-silver mineralization resembles an orogenic-type deposit formed by metamorphic fluids in the Qinling Yanshanian intracontinental orogeny. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Rare Metal and Related Deposits: Geology, Geochemistry and Mineralization)

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22 pages, 22428 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Tectonic Inversion in Sediment-Hosted Copper Deposits: The Luangu Area, West Congo Basin, Republic of the Congo

by Hongyuan Zhang, Shenghong Cheng, Gongwen Wang, William F. Defliese and Zhenjiang Liu

Minerals 2024, 14(11), 1061; https://doi.org/10.3390/min14111061 - 22 Oct 2024

Viewed by 976

Abstract

Complex Neoproterozoic tectonic processes greatly affected the West Congo Basin, resulting in a series of dispersed copper deposits in the Niari Sub-basin, Republic of the Congo. Structural observation and analysis can help in understanding both the transportation pathways for copper accumulation and the detailed tectonic evolution processes. This study examines cases from four copper mine sites in the Luangu region of the Niari Basin, using a set of codes that consider the three regional tectonic regimes (extension, extrusion, and contraction) and three deformation criteria (maximum effective moment criterion, tensile fracture criterion, and the Coulomb criterion). By combining these two aspects, nine new codes are introduced: the extension maximum effective moment criterion (EM), extension tensile fracture criterion (ET), extension Coulomb criterion (EC), strike-slip maximum effective moment criterion (SM), strike-slip tensile fracture criterion (ST), strike-slip Coulomb criterion (SC), compression maximum effective moment criterion (CM), compression tensile fracture criterion (CT), and compression Coulomb criterion (CC). By analyzing and applying these codes to the selected sites, we show that the new codes can present a geometric coordination catering to an exhumation-related inversion process from extension, strike-slipping, to contraction. The existence of SM- and CM-related structures that occurred during regional extrusional and contractional events may indicate a deeper level of exhumation for layers related to copper deposits in the field sites. A new tectonic evolution model is presented, considering the hypothesis of vertical principal stress changes while the two horizontal principal stresses remain relatively constant during copper mineralization affected by the Western Congo Orogen. The application of the nine codes facilitates the determination of interrelations between different tectonic regimes. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Rare Metal and Related Deposits: Geology, Geochemistry and Mineralization)

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19 pages, 7966 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Genesis of the Mengshan Granitoid Complex in an Early Mesozoic Intracontinental Subduction Tectonic Setting in South China: Evidence from Zircon U-Pb-Hf Isotopes and Geochemical Composition

by Jin Wei, Yongpeng Ouyang, Jing Zou, Runling Zeng, Xinming Zhang, Tao Zhang, Shenao Sui, Da Zhang, Xiaolong He and Yaoyao Zhang

Minerals 2024, 14(9), 854; https://doi.org/10.3390/min14090854 - 23 Aug 2024

Viewed by 1018

Abstract

The Mengshan granitoid complex is located in the central part of Jiangnan Orogen and belongs to the western part of Jiangxi Province, where several phases of granitic magmatism record the crustal evolution of the late-Indosinian. However, its petrogenesis remains uncertain, largely due to controversies over its origin, evolutionary process and tectonic setting during intrusion. In this study, the lithological features and contact relationships observed in the systematic field geological investigations indicate that the late magmatic phases of the Mengshan granitoid complex are mainly composed of medium–fine-grained biotite monzogranite and fine-grained monzogranite, both of which developed primary fine-grained muscovite. Petrological, petrographic, geochemical and zircon U-Pb-Hf isotopic studies were further carried out on these rocks. Zircon U-Pb isotopic analyses suggest that the medium–fine-grained biotite monzogranite mainly formed at 220.7 ± 1.0 Ma to 218.0 ± 0.8 Ma, and that the fine-grained monzogranite formed at 211.5 ± 2.9 Ma to 212.9 ± 1.0 Ma. Whole-rock geochemical analysis results suggest that these rocks are rich in Cs, Rb, and U, and deficient in Ba, Sr, and Ti, and that they have properties characteristic of rocks with high silica, low P content and high K calc-alkali. Mineralogical and geochemical analysis results suggest that they are S-type granites. The ε_Hf(t) values of the early-stage medium–fine-grained biotite monzogranite and late-stage fine-grained monzogranite range from –4.7 to 0.3 and from –3.2 to 0.7, respectively. Geochemical and isotopic data suggest that these granitoids were derived from the partial melting of Proterozoic continent basement rocks, and that minor mantle materials were involved during their generation. The presence of the early Mesozoic Mengshan granitoid complex reflects a reduplicated far-field converge effect of the collision of the North China and South China blocks and the subduction of the Palaeo-Pacific plate into the South China block. The thickening of the Earth’s crust facilitated crustal delamination, underplating of mantle-derived magma, and crustal heating, triggering intense partial melting of the lithosphere and magma enrichment. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Rare Metal and Related Deposits: Geology, Geochemistry and Mineralization)

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15 pages, 29396 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Geochemistry, Mineralogy, and Geochronology of the NYF Pegmatites, Jiaolesayi, Northern Qaidam Basin, China

by Long Zhang, Xianzhi Pei, Yongbao Gao, Zuochen Li, Ming Liu, Yongkang Jing, Yuanwei Wang, Kang Chen, Nan Deng, Yi Zhang and Junwei Wu

Minerals 2024, 14(8), 805; https://doi.org/10.3390/min14080805 - 9 Aug 2024

Viewed by 1493

Abstract

A significant amount of pegmatite has been discovered on the northwest margin of the Qaidam basin. Among this, the Jiaolesayi pegmatite, located in the northwestern margin of the Quanji Massif (Oulongbuluke micro-continent), shows rare element mineralization potential. Detailed field investigations, along with mineralogical, geochemical, and zircon U-Pb geochronological studies, were carried out on the pegmatite. The results show that the Jiaolesayi pegmatite is syenite, without obvious compositional zoning in the outcrop. It exhibits a peraluminous, high-K calc-alkaline nature with strong depletions in Eu, Sr, Ba, Ti, and P, and high contents of Nb, Ta, Y, Ti, U, Th, and heavy rare earth elements (HREEs), which are primarily concentrated in allanite-(Ce), euxenite-(Y), limonite, thorite, and zircon. The geochemical and mineralogical features of the syenite pegmatite indicate it belongs to the euxenite-type in the rare element class (REE) of the NYF family, with the characteristic accessory mineral being euxenite-(Y). Its 10,000 Ga/Al ratios (2.46 to 2.96), Zr + Nb + Ce + Y contents (998 to 6202 ppm), Y/Nb ratios (0.62 to 0.75), and Yb/Ta ratios (0.80 to 1.49) show an affinity with A₁-type granite. Zircons from the syenite sample yielded a weighted mean ²⁰⁶Pb/²³⁸U age of 413.6 ± 1.4 Ma, while the elevated U and Th concentrations in the zircons and Th/U ratios (0.04 to 0.16) suggest the possible influence of hydrothermal processes in the late-stage fractional crystallization. In the context of the regional tectonic evolution, the syenite pegmatite may have formed from a basic alkaline magma derived from an OIB-like melt with minor crustal contamination, under the post-collisional extension setting. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Rare Metal and Related Deposits: Geology, Geochemistry and Mineralization)

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21 pages, 4452 KiB

Open AccessFeature PaperArticle

Crystallization Sequence of the Spodumene-Rich Alijó Pegmatite (Northern Portugal) and Related Metasomatism on Its Host Rock

by Idoia Garate-Olave, Encarnación Roda-Robles, Nora Santos-Loyola, Tania Martins, Alexandre Lima and Jon Errandonea-Martin

Minerals 2024, 14(7), 701; https://doi.org/10.3390/min14070701 - 9 Jul 2024

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1846

Abstract

The Barroso–Alvão region is an excellent setting for studying Li mineralization associated with granitic pegmatites and developing Li exploration techniques. Among the distinguished pegmatite types in this pegmatite field, the spodumene-bearing dyke from Alijó is a representative example of an Iberian Li–Cs–Ta (LCT) pegmatite currently under exploitation. In this work, we examine the internal evolution of the Alijó dyke and its external metasomatic effect on the surrounding metasediments, contributing to lithium exploration techniques. Electron microprobe analyses provided clues about the crystallization conditions and the degree of differentiation of the pegmatitic melt, whereas the external metasomatism induced by the spodumene-bearing pegmatite was studied through whole-rock geochemistry. The obtained results indicate that the primary crystallization of the studied dyke likely occurred at temperatures between 450–500 °C, with emplacement at shallow crustal levels of about 2–3 kbar. The high concentrations of trace elements such as Li, Cs, Rb, Be, Sn, Nb, Ta, Ge, U, and Tl in the pegmatitic melt suggests high availability of these elements, allowing their partitioning into an early exsolved fluid phase. The exsolution of this fluid phase, subtracting components such as F and B, from the pegmatitic melt would cause a significant undercooling of the melt. Moreover, the interaction of this expelled fluid with the country rock generated a metasomatic overprint in the surrounding metasedimentary host rocks. The metasomatic effect in Alijó is strongly influenced by the nature of the host metasediments, with a significantly higher grade of metasomatism observed in pelitic (mica-rich) samples compared to psammitic (mica-poor) samples collected at same distances from the dyke. The greisen developed close to the pegmatite contact reflects this metasomatic signature, characterized by the mobilization of at least B, F, Li, Rb, Cs, Sn, Be, Nb, Ta, and Tl. We cautiously suggest that whole rock Li concentrations greater than 300 ppm, combined with a minimum value of 1000 ppm for the sum of B, F, Li, Rb, Cs, and Sn in pelitic metasediments of Barroso–Alvão, may be indicative of a mineralized pegmatite in this region. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Rare Metal and Related Deposits: Geology, Geochemistry and Mineralization)

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20 pages, 52685 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Characteristics and Metallogenic Significance of Fe-Mn Carbonate Minerals in the Erdaokan Ag Deposit, Heilongjiang Province, Northeast China: Constraints from Sm-Nd Geochronology and Trace Elements

by Yuanjiang Yang, Chenglu Li, Zeyu Wang, Huajuan Gu, Wenpeng Yang, Maowen Yuan, Anzong Fu, Bo Zheng, Zhaoxun Cheng and Baoshan Liu

Minerals 2024, 14(7), 655; https://doi.org/10.3390/min14070655 - 26 Jun 2024

Viewed by 1557

Abstract

Fe-Mn carbonate is the dominant mineral in the Erdaokan Ag deposit, which represents the first large independent silver deposit during the Late Triassic Period in the Duobaoshan Cu-Mo-Au mineralization concentrated area of Heilongjiang Province, NE China. The Fe-Mn carbonates in the deposit frequently co-exist with Ag minerals. Thus, the presence of Fe-Mn carbonates plays a crucial role in the ore-formation process, making their analysis essential for obtaining valuable metallogenic information about the Erdaokan deposit. Through microexamination, SEM and EDS analysis, a clear relationship between Fe-Mn carbonate minerals and Ag minerals was established. Furthermore, electron probe microanalysis, LA-ICP-MS, and Sr-Nd isotope tests were conducted to analyze Fe-Mn carbonates for significant metallogenic insights. The distribution pattern of trace elements and rare-earth elements in Fe-Mn carbonates is similar, characterized by Zr depletion (below 0.131 ppm), enrichment of light rare-earth elements, a noticeable deficit of Eu (δEu = 0.06–0.63), and an average Y/Ho value of 34.29, indicating the involvement of upper mantle-derived deep magma in the formation of ore-forming materials. The samples had a Sm-Nd isochron age of 233.7 ± 1.2 Ma, suggesting that the Erdaokan Ag deposit was formed during the Late Triassic Period. This study highlights the significance of Fe-Mn carbonate as a valuable mineral indicator for regional silver prospecting purposes, and confirms the Late Triassic Period as another important metallogenic stage in the Duobaoshan Cu-Mo-Au mineralization concentrated area. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Rare Metal and Related Deposits: Geology, Geochemistry and Mineralization)

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26 pages, 22213 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Geochronology and Geochemistry of Granitic Pegmatites from Tashidaban Li Deposit in the Central Altun Tagh, Northwest China

by Kai Kang, Yince Ma, Peng Zhang, Hang Li, Xuehai Wang, Zhaoxia Liao, Lei Niu, Jianzhong Chen, Xingzhong Liu and Xingwang Xu

Minerals 2024, 14(6), 542; https://doi.org/10.3390/min14060542 - 24 May 2024

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1473

Abstract

The Central Altun orogenic system is a result of the amalgamation of multiple micro-continental blocks and island arcs. This complex system originated from subduction–accretion–collision processes in the Proto-Tethys Ocean during the Early Paleozoic. Research has reported the discovery of several Li-Be granitic pegmatite deposits in the Central Altun Block, including the North Tugeman granitic pegmatite Li-Be deposit, Tugeman granitic pegmatite Be deposit, Tashisayi granitic pegmatite Li deposit, South Washixia granitic pegmatite Li deposit, and Tamuqie granitic pegmatite Li deposit. The Tashidaban granitic pegmatite Li deposit has been newly discovered along the northern margin of the Central Altun Block. Field and geochemical studies of the Tashidaban granitic pegmatite Li deposit indicate: (1) Spodumene pegmatites and elbaite pegmatites, as Li-bearing granitic pegmatites that form the Tashidaban granitic pegmatite Li deposit, intrude into the two-mica schist, and marble of the Muzisayi Formation of the Tashidaban Group. (2) Columbite–tantalite group minerals and zircon U-Pb dating results indicate that the mineralization age of Tashidaban Li granitic pegmatites is 450.2 ± 2.4 Ma with a superimposed magmatic event at around 418–422 Ma later. (3) Whole-rock geochemical results indicate that the Kumudaban rock sequence belongs to the S-type high-K to calc-alkaline granites and the Tashidaban Li granitic pegmatites originated from the extreme differentiation by fractional crystallization of the Kumdaban granite pluton. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Rare Metal and Related Deposits: Geology, Geochemistry and Mineralization)

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