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Scaling-Up Macroalgal Production
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Scaling-Up Macroalgal Production

A special issue of Journal of Marine Science and Engineering (ISSN 2077-1312). This special issue belongs to the section "Marine Biology".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (1 April 2022) | Viewed by 22664

Special Issue Editors

Dr. Laurie Hofmann

E-Mail Website1 Website2
Guest Editor
Alfred Wegener Institute Helmholtz Centre for Polar and Marine Research, Bremerhaven, Germany
Interests: marine ecology; plant physiology; marine environment; marine biodiversity; sustainability; climate change; ocean acidification; calcification; aquatic ecology; marine biology; eutrophication; benthic ecology; carbon dioxide; estuarine science; phycology; macroalgae; seaweed biology; marine algae; experimental biology; cultivation; plant ecophysiology; marine botany
Dr. Stefan Sebök

E-Mail Website1 Website2
Guest Editor
University of Hamburg, Hamburg, Germany || CEO of Algenprojekt Meeresalgenland UG
Interests: marine macroalgae; seaweed biology; phycology; land-based cultivation; cultivation technology; aquaculture

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

This Special Issue focuses on the challenges, considerations, and, most importantly, progress in the realm of scaling up macroalgal production. The cultivation of macroalgae has the potential to fulfill many of the United Nations Sustainability Goals and simultaneously reduce pressure on natural standing stocks, yet many barriers remain that have prevented the expansion of production to commercially relevant scales. Therefore, we invite contributions from researchers in both academia and industry that report or review the progress and future directions of scaling up macroalgal production. The scope of the Special Issue covers all methods and stages of macroalgal production. This includes, but is not limited to, the areas of ocean farming, offshore production, seaweed hatcheries, seed stock production, disease prevention, biorefining, cost efficiency, and processing. Particularly welcome are contributions related to scaling up land-based production.

Dr. Laurie Hofmann
Dr. Stefan Sebök
Guest Editors

Manuscript Submission Information

Manuscripts should be submitted online at www.mdpi.com by registering and logging in to this website. Once you are registered, click here to go to the submission form. Manuscripts can be submitted until the deadline. All submissions that pass pre-check are peer-reviewed. Accepted papers will be published continuously in the journal (as soon as accepted) and will be listed together on the special issue website. Research articles, review articles as well as short communications are invited. For planned papers, a title and short abstract (about 100 words) can be sent to the Editorial Office for announcement on this website.

Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a single-blind peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. Journal of Marine Science and Engineering is an international peer-reviewed open access monthly journal published by MDPI.

Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. The Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal is 2600 CHF (Swiss Francs). Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.

Keywords

  • macroalgae
  • seaweed
  • aquaculture
  • scaling up
  • ocean farming
  • seaweed nursey
  • seed stock
  • biorefinery
  • land-based aquaculture
  • recirculating aquaculture systems

Published Papers (6 papers)

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Research

12 pages, 13354 KiB  
Article
In-Culture Selection and the Potential Effects of Changing Sex Ratios on the Reproductive Success of Multiannual Delayed Gametophytes of Saccharina latissima and Alaria esculenta
by Alexander P. J. Ebbing, Gregory S. Fivash, Nuria B. Martin, Ronald Pierik, Tjeerd J. Bouma, Jacco C. Kromkamp and Klaas Timmermans
J. Mar. Sci. Eng. 2021, 9(11), 1250; https://doi.org/10.3390/jmse9111250 - 11 Nov 2021
Cited by 4 | Viewed by 1890
Abstract
Multiannual delayed gametophyte cultures can stay vegetative for years, while also having the ability to grow. This study aims to investigate whether male and female multiannual delayed gametophyte strains of the species Saccharina latissima and Alaria esculenta grow at different rates in culture. [...] Read more.
Multiannual delayed gametophyte cultures can stay vegetative for years, while also having the ability to grow. This study aims to investigate whether male and female multiannual delayed gametophyte strains of the species Saccharina latissima and Alaria esculenta grow at different rates in culture. We furthermore assessed how changing sex ratios can affect the reproductive yields of these cultures. The results indicate that the reproductive yield of cultures declines with decreasing male:female ratios, a correlation that becomes especially apparent at higher culture densities for both species. Female gametophyte densities in particular affected the observed reproductive yield of the cultures, with S. latissima cultures showing a clear reproductive optimum (sporophytes·mL−1) at 0.013 mg·mL−1 DW female gametophyte biomass, while the reproductive success of A. esculenta peaked at a density of 0.025 mg·mL−1 DW of female gametophyte biomass, after which the reproductive yield started to decline in both species. The results show that the sex ratio of a gametophyte culture is an important biotic life cycle control, with higher amounts of female gametophyte biomass halting gametophyte reproduction. Understanding how these changing sex ratios in gametophyte cultures affect reproduction is especially important in the aquaculture of kelp, where reliable preforming cultures are key to long-term success. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Scaling-Up Macroalgal Production)
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9 pages, 511 KiB  
Communication
Food-Grade Biorefinery Processing of Macroalgae at Scale: Considerations, Observations and Recommendations
by Jessica M. M. Adams, S. Michael Morris, Laura Steege, Joanne Robinson and Charles Bavington
J. Mar. Sci. Eng. 2021, 9(10), 1082; https://doi.org/10.3390/jmse9101082 - 2 Oct 2021
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 2222
Abstract
Using brown seaweed kelp species Saccharina latissima and Laminaria digitata as feedstocks, a set of pilot-scale macroalgae processing batches were conducted (50–200 kg per batch) for the production of a range of food-grade liquid and solid fractions. The aim of this communication is [...] Read more.
Using brown seaweed kelp species Saccharina latissima and Laminaria digitata as feedstocks, a set of pilot-scale macroalgae processing batches were conducted (50–200 kg per batch) for the production of a range of food-grade liquid and solid fractions. The aim of this communication is to relay a number of lessons learnt during this period in combination with previous relevant observations and considerations for others who are intending to process macroalgae at scale. The novelty of this paper is thus to form a bridge between academic findings and practical know-how. Considerations covers material diversity; abiotic and biotic impact and variation; and supply chain considerations. Observations covers milling and cutting; equipment requirements; and acids including their effects on heavy metals, especially lead. Recommendations summarises key points from this pilot-scale and previous work. These include: harvest seasonality, water quality and proximity to processing facilities; minimising contaminants within the macroalgae such as stones and shells; considering equipment composition and volume for all steps and processes including final product quality; acid choice and its effects on both the equipment used and the metals bioaccumulated within the macroalgae. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Scaling-Up Macroalgal Production)
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18 pages, 2830 KiB  
Article
Innovation and Collaboration: Opportunities for the European Seaweed Sector in Global Value Chains
by Trond Selnes, Else Giesbers and Sander W. K. van den Burg
J. Mar. Sci. Eng. 2021, 9(7), 693; https://doi.org/10.3390/jmse9070693 - 24 Jun 2021
Cited by 6 | Viewed by 3674
Abstract
The European seaweed sector transitions from harvesting wild stocks only to harvesting and farming seaweed. This transition comes with the need to rethink the role of the European sector on the global scale; insight is needed into the organization of, and innovation in, [...] Read more.
The European seaweed sector transitions from harvesting wild stocks only to harvesting and farming seaweed. This transition comes with the need to rethink the role of the European sector on the global scale; insight is needed into the organization of, and innovation in, the global seaweed value chain. This article presents results from our study on value chains using Gereffi’s conceptual framework. A systematic review of scientific publications published between 2010 and 2020 was executed for five markets: pharmaceuticals, bioplastics, biostimulants, alginate and cosmetics. It is concluded that innovation in the use of seaweed takes place across the globe and thus that a focus on high-value applications alone will not set the nascent European seaweed sector apart from established producing regions such as Asia. The studied global value chains are organised around strong lead firms that require suppliers to produce according to codified product characteristics. The European seaweed sector needs to increase the collaboration and develop joint efforts to develop safe and sustainable products that meet the demands of regulators, lead firms and consumers. Stronger coordination in the value chain will facilitate further business development, by stimulating collaboration and innovations. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Scaling-Up Macroalgal Production)
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19 pages, 1788 KiB  
Article
Sustainable Large-Scale Aquaculture of the Northern Hemisphere Sea Lettuce, Ulva fenestrata, in an Off-Shore Seafarm
by Sophie Steinhagen, Swantje Enge, Karin Larsson, Joakim Olsson, Göran M. Nylund, Eva Albers, Henrik Pavia, Ingrid Undeland and Gunilla B. Toth
J. Mar. Sci. Eng. 2021, 9(6), 615; https://doi.org/10.3390/jmse9060615 - 3 Jun 2021
Cited by 32 | Viewed by 8198
Abstract
The growing world population demands an increase in sustainable resources for biorefining. The opening of new farm grounds and the cultivation of extractive species, such as marine seaweeds, increases worldwide, aiming to provide renewable biomass for food and non-food applications. The potential for [...] Read more.
The growing world population demands an increase in sustainable resources for biorefining. The opening of new farm grounds and the cultivation of extractive species, such as marine seaweeds, increases worldwide, aiming to provide renewable biomass for food and non-food applications. The potential for European large-scale open ocean farming of the commercial green seaweed crop Ulva is not yet fully realized. Here we conducted manipulative cultivation experiments in order to investigate the effects of hatchery temperature (10 and 15 °C), nutrient addition (PES and 3xPES) and swarmer density (500 and 10,000 swarmers ml−1) on the biomass yield and biochemical composition (fatty acid, protein, carbohydrate, pigment and phenolic content) of off-shore cultivated Ulva fenestrata in a Swedish seafarm. High seedling densities were optimal for the growth of this northern hemisphere crop strain and significantly increased the mean biomass yield by ~84% compared to low seedling densities. Variations of nutrients or changes in temperature levels during the hatchery phase were not necessary to increase the subsequent growth in an open-water seafarm, however effects of the factors on the thallus habitus (thallus length/width) were observed. We found no significant effect of the environmental factors applied in the hatchery on the total fatty acid or crude protein content in the off-shore cultivated Ulva. However, low seedling density and low temperature increased the total carbohydrate content and furthermore, high temperature in combination with high nutrient levels decreased the pigment content (chlorophyll a, b, carotenoids). Low temperature in combination with high nutrient levels increased the phenolic content. Our study confirms the successful and sustainable potential for large-scale off-shore cultivation of the Scandinavian crop U. fenestrata. We conclude that high seedling density in the hatchery is most important for increasing the total biomass yield of sea-farmed U. fenestrata, and that changing temperature or addition of nutrients overall does not have a large effect on the biochemical composition. To summarize, our study contributes novel insights into the large-scale off-shore cultivation potential of northern hemisphere U. fenestrata and underpins suitable pre-treatments during the hatchery phase of seedlings to facilitate a successful and cost-efficient large-scale rope cultivation. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Scaling-Up Macroalgal Production)
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15 pages, 2279 KiB  
Article
New Insights on the Sporulation, Germination, and Nutritional Profile of Gracilaria gracilis (Rhodophyta) Grown under Controlled Conditions
by Marta V. Freitas, Teresa Mouga, Ana Patrícia Correia, Clélia Afonso and Teresa Baptista
J. Mar. Sci. Eng. 2021, 9(6), 562; https://doi.org/10.3390/jmse9060562 - 23 May 2021
Cited by 7 | Viewed by 3434
Abstract
The red seaweed Gracilaria gracilis is a widely cultivated species known for its high agar content. It is also an important source of proteins, minerals, and vitamins. The chemical profile of seaweed depends on the cultivation methods used and the growing conditions to [...] Read more.
The red seaweed Gracilaria gracilis is a widely cultivated species known for its high agar content. It is also an important source of proteins, minerals, and vitamins. The chemical profile of seaweed depends on the cultivation methods used and the growing conditions to which they are exposed. Thus, two independent methods of sporulation and germination were tested upon Gracilaria gracilis grown in controlled conditions. During the tests, different substrates, culture media and incubation times were tested to induce cystocarp maturation. The results showed that cystocarp maturation and spore release were successful, with a visible volume increase and format change in the protruding cystocarps. Furthermore, the process of maturation to germination was accomplished, fulfilling the complete life cycle. In parallel, the nutritional profile of the biomass obtained was evaluated and compared with the nutritional values of biomass collected from the environment. Results showed no significant differences between wild specimens and cultivated ones in organic matter, ash content, lipid content, carbohydrates, or phycocolloid content. The present work, therefore, presents two simple alternative methods with potential applications in start-ups aimed at the cultivation of seaweed. Through these methods, it is possible to obtain biomass with nutritional characteristics similar to those obtained in the wild. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Scaling-Up Macroalgal Production)
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12 pages, 24715 KiB  
Article
The Use of Living Mussels as a Substratum for Growing Seedlings of Two Sargassum Species from the Perspective of Coastal Seaweed Bed Restoration in the East China Sea
by Xunmeng Li, Kai Wang, Meiping Feng, Jianqu Chen, Shouyu Zhang and Yuanxin Bi
J. Mar. Sci. Eng. 2021, 9(6), 558; https://doi.org/10.3390/jmse9060558 - 21 May 2021
Cited by 3 | Viewed by 1988
Abstract
Sargassum vachellianum and Sargassum horneri are the main dominant species and primary producers of seaweed beds in Chinese coastal ecosystems that play an important role in marine blue carbon sinks. However, due to the influence of frequent human activities and global climate change, [...] Read more.
Sargassum vachellianum and Sargassum horneri are the main dominant species and primary producers of seaweed beds in Chinese coastal ecosystems that play an important role in marine blue carbon sinks. However, due to the influence of frequent human activities and global climate change, the seaweed beds formed by Sargassum vachellianum and Sargassum horneri in Chinese coastal waters are gradually declining. In this study, Sargassum zygotes were cultured onto the surface of mussels and then used to repair the declining seaweed bed resources through seaweed transplantation, which was indirectly achieved based on the fast attachment of mussel byssus. The results show that zygotes of Sargassum vachellianum and Sargassum horneri could grow on the surface of mussels and, over time, the force and rate of mussel adhesion gradually increased. The adhesion of Mytilus coruscus was greater than that of Septifer virgatus mussels. After four hours, the rate of adhesion for Mytilus coruscus with a shell length of 30 mm was 100%, and the adhesion force was the highest, at 0.511 ± 0.099 N. Hence, Mytilus coruscus showed better adhesion than Septifer virgatus. After 41 days, the mean length of Sargassum horneri germlings on the surface of Mytilus coruscus grew to 5.554 ± 0.724 mm, the daily growth rate was about 0.154 mm/d, and the mean density declined by 50.59%. After 31 days, the mean length of Sargassum vachellianum germlings increased to 5.510 ± 0.763 mm, the daily growth rate was about 0.191 mm/d, and the mean density declined by 21.21%. After 2 months of development of the mussel–seaweed combinations in coastal waters, the survival rate of Sargassum horneri was 7.6 ± 0.9% and that of Sargassum vachellianum was 25.9 ± 10.5%. Hence, compared with Sargassum horneri, Sargassum vachellianum attached to Mytilus coruscus showed better development, and this system can be used to combat the decline in seaweed bed resources. In this method, mussels were used as an intermediate attachment medium to indirectly achieve the settlement of zygotes for seaweed transplantation, and, therefore, their use as a substratum serves as the basis for a novel technique for seaweed beds restoration. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Scaling-Up Macroalgal Production)
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