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16 pages, 287 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Endocrine Dysfunction in Female FMR1 Premutation Carriers: Characteristics and Association with Ill Health

by Sonya Campbell, Sarah E. A. Eley, Andrew G. McKechanie and Andrew C. Stanfield

Genes 2016, 7(11), 101; https://doi.org/10.3390/genes7110101 - 18 Nov 2016

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 5714

Abstract

Female FMR1 premutation carriers (PMC) have been suggested to be at greater risk of ill health, in particular endocrine dysfunction, compared to the general population. We set out to review the literature relating to endocrine dysfunction, including premature ovarian insufficiency (POI), in female [...] Read more.

Female FMR1 premutation carriers (PMC) have been suggested to be at greater risk of ill health, in particular endocrine dysfunction, compared to the general population. We set out to review the literature relating to endocrine dysfunction, including premature ovarian insufficiency (POI), in female PMCs, and then to consider whether endocrine dysfunction in itself may be predictive of other illnesses in female PMCs. A systematic review and pilot data from a semi-structured health questionnaire were used. Medline, Embase, and PsycInfo were searched for papers concerning PMCs and endocrine dysfunction. For the pilot study, self-reported diagnoses in females were compared between PMCs with endocrine dysfunction (n = 18), PMCs without endocrine dysfunction (n = 14), and individuals without the premutation (n = 15). Twenty-nine papers were identified in the review; the majority concerned POI and reduced fertility, which are consistently found to be more common in PMCs than controls. There was some evidence that thyroid dysfunction may occur more frequently in subgroups of PMCs and that those with endocrine difficulties have poorer health than those without. In the pilot study, PMCs with endocrine problems reported higher levels of fibromyalgia (p = 0.03), tremor (p = 0.03), headache (p = 0.01) and obsessive–compulsive disorder (p = 0.009) than either comparison group. Further larger scale research is warranted to determine whether female PMCs are at risk of endocrine disorders other than those associated with reproduction and whether endocrine dysfunction identifies a high-risk group for the presence of other health conditions. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Fragile X Syndrome)

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7 pages, 202 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Associated Clinical Disorders Diagnosed by Medical Specialists in 188 FMR1 Premutation Carriers Found in the Last 25 Years in the Spanish Basque Country: A Retrospective Study

by Sonia Merino, Nekane Ibarluzea, Hiart Maortua, Begoña Prieto, Idoia Rouco, Maria-Asunción López-Aríztegui and Maria-Isabel Tejada

Genes 2016, 7(10), 90; https://doi.org/10.3390/genes7100090 - 21 Oct 2016

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 4429

Abstract

Fragile X-associated tremor/ataxia syndrome (FXTAS) and fragile X-associated primary ovarian insufficiency (FXPOI) are definitely related to the fragile X mental retardation 1 (FMR1) premutation (PM). Additional medical problems have also been associated with the PM, such as fibromyalgia, endocrine, and psychiatric [...] Read more.

Fragile X-associated tremor/ataxia syndrome (FXTAS) and fragile X-associated primary ovarian insufficiency (FXPOI) are definitely related to the fragile X mental retardation 1 (FMR1) premutation (PM). Additional medical problems have also been associated with the PM, such as fibromyalgia, endocrine, and psychiatric disorders. To improve our understanding in the field, we reviewed all PM carriers and their reasons for any medical referrals from 104 fragile X families molecularly diagnosed in our laboratory and living in the Spanish Basque Country. After signing the written informed consent, we studied their electronic medical records in order to identify the disorders associated with the PM and their frequencies. We obtained clinical data in 188 PM carriers (147 women and 41 men). In women, the frequency of FXPOI (22.61%) was similar to that previously reported in PM carriers. In men, the frequency of definite FXTAS (28.57%) was lower than reported elsewhere. Furthermore, thyroid pathology was associated with the PM, the frequency of hypothyroidism being much higher in the studied region than in the general population (8.84% vs. 0.93%). Finally, we found no association with fibromyalgia or psychiatric problems. These findings represent another population contribution in this field and may be useful for the clinical management of PM carriers. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Fragile X Syndrome)

13 pages, 787 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Towards a Better Molecular Diagnosis of FMR1-Related Disorders—A Multiyear Experience from a Reference Lab

by Sylwia Olimpia Rzońca, Monika Gos, Daniel Szopa, Danuta Sielska-Rotblum, Aleksandra Landowska, Agnieszka Szpecht-Potocka, Michał Milewski, Jolanta Czekajska, Anna Abramowicz, Ewa Obersztyn, Dorota Maciejko, Tadeusz Mazurczak and Jerzy Bal

Genes 2016, 7(9), 59; https://doi.org/10.3390/genes7090059 - 2 Sep 2016

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 6002

Abstract

The article summarizes over 20 years of experience of a reference lab in fragile X mental retardation 1 gene (FMR1) molecular analysis in the molecular diagnosis of fragile X spectrum disorders. This includes fragile X syndrome (FXS), fragile X-associated primary ovarian [...] Read more.

The article summarizes over 20 years of experience of a reference lab in fragile X mental retardation 1 gene (FMR1) molecular analysis in the molecular diagnosis of fragile X spectrum disorders. This includes fragile X syndrome (FXS), fragile X-associated primary ovarian insufficiency (FXPOI) and fragile X-associated tremor/ataxia syndrome (FXTAS), which are three different clinical conditions with the same molecular background. They are all associated with an expansion of CGG repeats in the 5′UTR of FMR1 gene. Until 2016, the FMR1 gene was tested in 9185 individuals with the pre-screening PCR, supplemented with Southern blot analysis and/or Triplet Repeat Primed PCR based method. This approach allowed us to confirm the diagnosis of FXS, FXPOI FXTAS in 636/9131 (6.96%), 4/43 (9.3%) and 3/11 (27.3%) of the studied cases, respectively. Moreover, the FXS carrier status was established in 389 individuals. The technical aspect of the molecular analysis is very important in diagnosis of FXS-related disorders. The new methods were subsequently implemented in our laboratory. This allowed the significance of the Southern blot technique to be decreased until its complete withdrawal. Our experience points out the necessity of implementation of the GeneScan based methods to simplify the testing procedure as well as to obtain more information for the patient, especially if TP-PCR based methods are used. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Fragile X Syndrome)

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12 pages, 1489 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Possible Therapeutic Doses of Cannabinoid Type 1 Receptor Antagonist Reverses Key Alterations in Fragile X Syndrome Mouse Model

by Maria Gomis-González, Arnau Busquets-Garcia, Carlos Matute, Rafael Maldonado, Susana Mato and Andrés Ozaita

Genes 2016, 7(9), 56; https://doi.org/10.3390/genes7090056 - 31 Aug 2016

Cited by 37 | Viewed by 10103

Abstract

Fragile X syndrome (FXS) is the most common monogenetic cause of intellectual disability. The cognitive deficits in the mouse model for this disorder, the Fragile X Mental Retardation 1 (Fmr1) knockout (KO) mouse, have been restored by different pharmacological approaches, among those the [...] Read more.

Fragile X syndrome (FXS) is the most common monogenetic cause of intellectual disability. The cognitive deficits in the mouse model for this disorder, the Fragile X Mental Retardation 1 (Fmr1) knockout (KO) mouse, have been restored by different pharmacological approaches, among those the blockade of cannabinoid type 1 (CB1) receptor. In this regard, our previous study showed that the CB1 receptor antagonist/inverse agonist rimonabant normalized a number of core features in the Fmr1 knockout mouse. Rimonabant was commercialized at high doses for its anti-obesity properties, and withdrawn from the market on the bases of mood-related adverse effects. In this study we show, by using electrophysiological approaches, that low dosages of rimonabant (0.1 mg/kg) manage to normalize metabotropic glutamate receptor dependent long-term depression (mGluR-LTD). In addition, low doses of rimonabant (from 0.01 mg/kg) equally normalized the cognitive deficit in the mouse model of FXS. These doses of rimonabant were from 30 to 300 times lower than those required to reduce body weight in rodents and to presumably produce adverse effects in humans. Furthermore, NESS0327, a CB1 receptor neutral antagonist, was also effective in preventing the novel object-recognition memory deficit in Fmr1 KO mice. These data further support targeting CB1 receptors as a relevant therapy for FXS. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Fragile X Syndrome)

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Review

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18 pages, 263 KiB

Open AccessReview

Study of the Genetic Etiology of Primary Ovarian Insufficiency: FMR1 Gene

by Maitane Barasoain, Gorka Barrenetxea, Iratxe Huerta, Mercedes Télez, Begoña Criado and Isabel Arrieta

Genes 2016, 7(12), 123; https://doi.org/10.3390/genes7120123 - 13 Dec 2016

Cited by 33 | Viewed by 6325

Abstract

Menopause is a period of women’s life characterized by the cessation of menses in a definitive way. The mean age for menopause is approximately 51 years. Primary ovarian insufficiency (POI) refers to ovarian dysfunction defined as irregular menses and elevated gonadotrophin levels before [...] Read more.

Menopause is a period of women’s life characterized by the cessation of menses in a definitive way. The mean age for menopause is approximately 51 years. Primary ovarian insufficiency (POI) refers to ovarian dysfunction defined as irregular menses and elevated gonadotrophin levels before or at the age of 40 years. The etiology of POI is unknown but several genes have been reported as being of significance. The fragile X mental retardation 1 gene (FMR1) is one of the most important genes associated with POI. The FMR1 gene contains a highly polymorphic CGG repeat in the 5′ untranslated region of exon 1. Four allelic forms have been defined with respect to CGG repeat length and instability during transmission. Normal (5–44 CGG) alleles are usually transmitted from parent to offspring in a stable manner. The full mutation form consists of over 200 repeats, which induces hypermethylation of the FMR1 gene promoter and the subsequent silencing of the gene, associated with Fragile X Syndrome (FXS). Finally, FMR1 intermediate (45–54 CGG) and premutation (55–200 CGG) alleles have been principally associated with two phenotypes, fragile X tremor ataxia syndrome (FXTAS) and fragile X primary ovarian insufficiency (FXPOI). Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Fragile X Syndrome)

16 pages, 653 KiB

Open AccessReview

Detection and Quantification of the Fragile X Mental Retardation Protein 1 (FMRP)

by Giuseppe LaFauci, Tatyana Adayev, Richard Kascsak and W. Ted Brown

Genes 2016, 7(12), 121; https://doi.org/10.3390/genes7120121 - 9 Dec 2016

Cited by 17 | Viewed by 8658

Abstract

The final product of FMR1 gene transcription, Fragile X Mental Retardation Protein 1 (FMRP), is an RNA binding protein that acts as a repressor of translation. FMRP is expressed in several tissues and plays important roles in neurogenesis, synaptic plasticity, and ovarian functions [...] Read more.

The final product of FMR1 gene transcription, Fragile X Mental Retardation Protein 1 (FMRP), is an RNA binding protein that acts as a repressor of translation. FMRP is expressed in several tissues and plays important roles in neurogenesis, synaptic plasticity, and ovarian functions and has been implicated in a number of neuropsychological disorders. The loss of FMRP causes Fragile X Syndrome (FXS). In most cases, FXS is due to large expansions of a CGG repeat in FMR1—normally containing 6–54 repeats—to over 200 CGGs and identified as full mutation (FM). Hypermethylation of the repeat induces FMR1 silencing and lack of FMRP expression in FM male. Mosaic FM males express low levels of FMRP and present a less severe phenotype that inversely correlates with FMRP levels. Carriers of pre-mutations (55–200 CGG) show increased mRNA, and normal to reduced FMRP levels. Alternative splicing of FMR1 mRNA results in 24 FMRP predicted isoforms whose expression are tissues and developmentally regulated. Here, we summarize the approaches used by several laboratories including our own to (a) detect and estimate the amount of FMRP in different tissues, developmental stages and various pathologies; and (b) to accurately quantifying FMRP for a direct diagnosis of FXS in adults and newborns. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Fragile X Syndrome)

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Graphical abstract

15 pages, 2131 KiB

Open AccessFeature PaperReview

Development of Genetic Testing for Fragile X Syndrome and Associated Disorders, and Estimates of the Prevalence of FMR1 Expansion Mutations

by James N. Macpherson and Anna Murray

Genes 2016, 7(12), 110; https://doi.org/10.3390/genes7120110 - 30 Nov 2016

Cited by 12 | Viewed by 8577

Abstract

The identification of a trinucleotide (CGG) expansion as the chief mechanism of mutation in Fragile X syndrome in 1991 heralded a new chapter in molecular diagnostic genetics and generated a new perspective on mutational mechanisms in human genetic disease, which rapidly became a [...] Read more.

The identification of a trinucleotide (CGG) expansion as the chief mechanism of mutation in Fragile X syndrome in 1991 heralded a new chapter in molecular diagnostic genetics and generated a new perspective on mutational mechanisms in human genetic disease, which rapidly became a central paradigm (“dynamic mutation”) as more and more of the common hereditary neurodevelopmental disorders were ascribed to this novel class of mutation. The progressive expansion of a CGG repeat in the FMR1 gene from “premutation” to “full mutation” provided an explanation for the “Sherman paradox,” just as similar expansion mechanisms in other genes explained the phenomenon of “anticipation” in their pathogenesis. Later, FMR1 premutations were unexpectedly found associated with two other distinct phenotypes: primary ovarian insufficiency and tremor-ataxia syndrome. This review will provide a historical perspective on procedures for testing and reporting of Fragile X syndrome and associated disorders, and the population genetics of FMR1 expansions, including estimates of prevalence and the influence of AGG interspersions on the rate and probability of expansion. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Fragile X Syndrome)

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23 pages, 842 KiB

Open AccessReview

Molecular Correlates and Recent Advancements in the Diagnosis and Screening of FMR1-Related Disorders

by Indhu-Shree Rajan-Babu and Samuel S. Chong

Genes 2016, 7(10), 87; https://doi.org/10.3390/genes7100087 - 14 Oct 2016

Cited by 17 | Viewed by 7722

Abstract

Fragile X syndrome (FXS) is the most common monogenic cause of intellectual disability and autism. Molecular diagnostic testing of FXS and related disorders (fragile X-associated primary ovarian insufficiency (FXPOI) and fragile X-associated tremor/ataxia syndrome (FXTAS)) relies on a combination of polymerase chain reaction [...] Read more.

Fragile X syndrome (FXS) is the most common monogenic cause of intellectual disability and autism. Molecular diagnostic testing of FXS and related disorders (fragile X-associated primary ovarian insufficiency (FXPOI) and fragile X-associated tremor/ataxia syndrome (FXTAS)) relies on a combination of polymerase chain reaction (PCR) and Southern blot (SB) for the fragile X mental retardation 1 (FMR1) CGG-repeat expansion and methylation analyses. Recent advancements in PCR-based technologies have enabled the characterization of the complete spectrum of CGG-repeat mutation, with or without methylation assessment, and, as a result, have reduced our reliance on the labor- and time-intensive SB, which is the gold standard FXS diagnostic test. The newer and more robust triplet-primed PCR or TP-PCR assays allow the mapping of AGG interruptions and enable the predictive analysis of the risks of unstable CGG expansion during mother-to-child transmission. In this review, we have summarized the correlation between several molecular elements, including CGG-repeat size, methylation, mosaicism and skewed X-chromosome inactivation, and the extent of clinical involvement in patients with FMR1-related disorders, and reviewed key developments in PCR-based methodologies for the molecular diagnosis of FXS, FXTAS and FXPOI, and large-scale (CGG)_n expansion screening in newborns, women of reproductive age and high-risk populations. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Fragile X Syndrome)

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19 pages, 822 KiB

Open AccessReview

Modeling Fragile X Syndrome Using Human Pluripotent Stem Cells

by Hagar Mor-Shaked and Rachel Eiges

Genes 2016, 7(10), 77; https://doi.org/10.3390/genes7100077 - 28 Sep 2016

Cited by 19 | Viewed by 8990

Abstract

Fragile X syndrome (FXS) is the most common heritable form of cognitive impairment. It results from a loss-of-function mutation by a CGG repeat expansion at the 5′ untranslated region of the X-linked fragile X mental retardation 1 (FMR1) gene. Expansion of the CGG [...] Read more.

Fragile X syndrome (FXS) is the most common heritable form of cognitive impairment. It results from a loss-of-function mutation by a CGG repeat expansion at the 5′ untranslated region of the X-linked fragile X mental retardation 1 (FMR1) gene. Expansion of the CGG repeats beyond 200 copies results in protein deficiency by leading to aberrant methylation of the FMR1 promoter and the switch from active to repressive histone modifications. Additionally, the CGGs become increasingly unstable, resulting in high degree of variation in expansion size between and within tissues of affected individuals. It is still unclear how the FMR1 protein (FMRP) deficiency leads to disease pathology in neurons. Nor do we know the mechanisms by which the CGG expansion results in aberrant DNA methylation, or becomes unstable in somatic cells of patients, at least in part due to the lack of appropriate animal or cellular models. This review summarizes the current contribution of pluripotent stem cells, mutant human embryonic stem cells, and patient-derived induced pluripotent stem cells to disease modeling of FXS for basic and applied research, including the development of new therapeutic approaches. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Fragile X Syndrome)

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14 pages, 3272 KiB

Open AccessReview

Ups and Downs: Mechanisms of Repeat Instability in the Fragile X-Related Disorders

by Xiao-Nan Zhao and Karen Usdin

Genes 2016, 7(9), 70; https://doi.org/10.3390/genes7090070 - 21 Sep 2016

Cited by 14 | Viewed by 6735

Abstract

The Fragile X-related disorders (FXDs) are a group of clinical conditions resulting from the expansion of a CGG/CCG-repeat tract in exon 1 of the Fragile X mental retardation 1 (FMR1) gene. While expansions of the repeat tract predominate, contractions are also seen with [...] Read more.

The Fragile X-related disorders (FXDs) are a group of clinical conditions resulting from the expansion of a CGG/CCG-repeat tract in exon 1 of the Fragile X mental retardation 1 (FMR1) gene. While expansions of the repeat tract predominate, contractions are also seen with the net result being that individuals can show extensive repeat length heterogeneity in different tissues. The mechanisms responsible for expansion and contraction are still not well understood. This review will discuss what is known about these processes and current evidence that supports a model in which expansion arises from the interaction of components of the base excision repair, mismatch repair and transcription coupled repair pathways. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Fragile X Syndrome)

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16 pages, 2065 KiB

Open AccessReview

Transcriptional Reactivation of the FMR1 Gene. A Possible Approach to the Treatment of the Fragile X Syndrome

by Elisabetta Tabolacci, Federica Palumbo, Veronica Nobile and Giovanni Neri

Genes 2016, 7(8), 49; https://doi.org/10.3390/genes7080049 - 17 Aug 2016

Cited by 27 | Viewed by 15582

Abstract

Fragile X syndrome (FXS) is the most common cause of inherited intellectual disability, caused by CGG expansion over 200 repeats (full mutation, FM) at the 5′ untranslated region (UTR) of the fragile X mental retardation 1 (FMR1) gene and subsequent DNA [...] Read more.

Fragile X syndrome (FXS) is the most common cause of inherited intellectual disability, caused by CGG expansion over 200 repeats (full mutation, FM) at the 5′ untranslated region (UTR) of the fragile X mental retardation 1 (FMR1) gene and subsequent DNA methylation of the promoter region, accompanied by additional epigenetic histone modifications that result in a block of transcription and absence of the fragile X mental retardation protein (FMRP). The lack of FMRP, involved in multiple aspects of mRNA metabolism in the brain, is thought to be the direct cause of the FXS phenotype. Restoration of FMR1 transcription and FMRP production can be obtained in vitro by treating FXS lymphoblastoid cell lines with the demethylating agent 5-azadeoxycytidine, demonstrating that DNA methylation is key to FMR1 inactivation. This concept is strengthened by the existence of rare male carriers of a FM, who are unable to methylate the FMR1 promoter. These individuals produce limited amounts of FMRP and are of normal intelligence. Their inability to methylate the FMR1 promoter, whose cause is not yet fully elucidated, rescues them from manifesting the FXS. These observations demonstrate that a therapeutic approach to FXS based on the pharmacological reactivation of the FMR1 gene is conceptually tenable and worthy of being further pursued. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Fragile X Syndrome)

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Other

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2 pages, 154 KiB

Open AccessCase Report

Molecular Inconsistencies in a Fragile X Male with Early Onset Ataxia

by Yun Tae Hwang, Tracy Dudding, Solange Mabel Aliaga, Marta Arpone, David Francis, Xin Li, Howard Robert Slater, Carolyn Rogers, Lesley Bretherton, Desirée Du Sart, Robert Heard and David Eugeny Godler

Genes 2016, 7(9), 68; https://doi.org/10.3390/genes7090068 - 21 Sep 2016

Cited by 8 | Viewed by 5681

Abstract

Mosaicism for FMR1 premutation (PM: 55–199 CGG)/full mutation (FM: >200 CGG) alleles or the presence of unmethylated FM (UFM) have been associated with a less severe fragile X syndrome (FXS) phenotype and fragile X associated tremor/ataxia syndrome (FXTAS)—a late onset neurodegenerative disorder. We [...] Read more.

Mosaicism for FMR1 premutation (PM: 55–199 CGG)/full mutation (FM: >200 CGG) alleles or the presence of unmethylated FM (UFM) have been associated with a less severe fragile X syndrome (FXS) phenotype and fragile X associated tremor/ataxia syndrome (FXTAS)—a late onset neurodegenerative disorder. We describe a 38 year old male carrying a 100% methylated FM detected with Southern blot (SB), which is consistent with complete silencing of FMR1 and a diagnosis of fragile X syndrome. However, his formal cognitive scores were not at the most severe end of the FXS phenotype and he displayed tremor and ataxic gait. With the association of UFM with FXTAS, we speculated that his ataxia might be related to an undetected proportion of UFM alleles. Such UFM alleles were confirmed by more sensitive PCR based methylation testing showing FM methylation between 60% and 70% in blood, buccal, and saliva samples and real-time PCR analysis showing incomplete silencing of FMR1. While he did not meet diagnostic criteria for FXTAS based on MRI findings, the underlying cause of his ataxia may be related to UFM alleles not detected by SB, and follow-up clinical and molecular assessment are justified if his symptoms worsen. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Fragile X Syndrome)

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