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Combustion and Fire Safety of Wood: From Built Environments to...
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Combustion and Fire Safety of Wood: From Built Environments to Forests

A special issue of Fire (ISSN 2571-6255). This special issue belongs to the section "Mathematical Modelling and Numerical Simulation of Combustion and Fire".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: 31 October 2026 | Viewed by 4393

Special Issue Editors

Dr. Elif Kaynak

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
Department of Civil, Environmental and Natural Resources Engineering, Luleå University of Technology, 97187 Luleå, Sweden
Interests: flame retardant; textiles; composites; bio-based; wood
Prof. Dr. Ágoston Restás

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
Institute of Disaster Management, University of Public Service, H-1083 Budapest, Hungary
Interests: fire extinhuishing; drone; forest fire
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

Wood, rooted in forests, of immense ecological and economic importance in today’s sustainability-focused world, remains an indispensable renewable material, widely used in construction. However, its inherent combustibility calls for continued innovation in fire safety and risk reduction across both built and natural environments.

This Special Issue invites original research and critical reviews that advance our understanding of wood behaviour from multiple perspectives—ranging from construction applications to unmanaged wildlands.

We welcome contributions on the following topics:

  • Physical, chemical, or combined treatments that modify the flammability, ease of ignition, heat release, or smoke toxicity of solid wood, engineered products, and bio-based composites.
  • Comparative combustion characteristics of diverse species and value-added wood products under bench-scale and real-scale scenarios.
  • Utilization of wood-derived components (e.g., biochar, lignin-based retardants) for passive or active fire-prevention technologies.
  • Sensor networks, remote sensing, and modelling approaches for detecting, monitoring, and forecasting wildland or interface fires.
  • Strategies to assess and mitigate the fire potential of logging residues, urban wood waste, and post-harvest fuels.
  • Case studies linking laboratory findings to building codes, performance-based design, or landscape-scale fire management.

Interdisciplinary manuscripts bridging material science, forestry, structural engineering, and risk management are especially encouraged.

Dr. Elif Kaynak
Prof. Dr. Ágoston Restás
Guest Editors

Manuscript Submission Information

Manuscripts should be submitted online at www.mdpi.com by registering and logging in to this website. Once you are registered, click here to go to the submission form. Manuscripts can be submitted until the deadline. All submissions that pass pre-check are peer-reviewed. Accepted papers will be published continuously in the journal (as soon as accepted) and will be listed together on the special issue website. Research articles, review articles as well as short communications are invited. For planned papers, a title and short abstract (about 250 words) can be sent to the Editorial Office for assessment.

Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a single-blind peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. Fire is an international peer-reviewed open access monthly journal published by MDPI.

Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. The Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal is 2400 CHF (Swiss Francs). Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.

Keywords

  • flammability and ignition
  • combustion characteristics
  • wood products
  • wood-derived components
  • bio-based composites
  • passive or active fire-prevention technologies

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Published Papers (4 papers)

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Research

29 pages, 9088 KB  
Article
Fine-Scale Mapping of the Wildland–Urban Interface and Seasonal Wildfire Susceptibility Analysis in the High-Altitude Mountainous Areas of Southwestern China
by Shenghao Li, Mingshan Wu, Jiangxia Ye, Xun Zhao, Sophia Xiaoxia Duan, Mengting Xue, Wenlong Yang, Zhichao Huang, Bingjie Han, Shuai He and Fangrong Zhou
Fire 2026, 9(4), 140; https://doi.org/10.3390/fire9040140 - 25 Mar 2026
Viewed by 617
Abstract
Wildfires at the wildland–urban interface (WUI) have increased in frequency and severity under global warming and intensified human activities. As a representative high-altitude mountainous region in southwestern China, Yunnan features complex topography, steep climatic gradients, and dispersed settlements interwoven with wildlands, making it [...] Read more.
Wildfires at the wildland–urban interface (WUI) have increased in frequency and severity under global warming and intensified human activities. As a representative high-altitude mountainous region in southwestern China, Yunnan features complex topography, steep climatic gradients, and dispersed settlements interwoven with wildlands, making it a fire-prone area where wildfire management is particularly challenging. However, a fine-scale WUI dataset is currently lacking for this region. To address this gap, we refined WUI classification thresholds using a one-factor-at-a-time (OFAT) method and generated the first fine-resolution WUI map of Yunnan. Seasonal wildfire driving factors from 2004 to 2023 were quantified, and machine learning models were applied to produce seasonal susceptibility maps. SHapley Additive exPlanations (SHAP) were employed to interpret the dominant contributing factors. The resulting WUI covers 25,730.67 km2, accounting for 6.5% of Yunnan’s land area. Random forest models effectively captured seasonal wildfire susceptibility patterns, with AUC values exceeding 0.83 across all seasons. High susceptibility zones (>0.5) comprised 30.09% of the WUI in spring, 25.74% in winter, 22.61% in autumn, and 13.74% in summer. SHAP analysis revealed that anthropogenic factors consistently drive wildfire occurrence, while climatic conditions in the preceding season influence vegetation status and subsequently affect wildfire likelihood in the current season. By integrating static “where” mapping with dynamic “when” susceptibility analysis, this study establishes a comprehensive “When–Where” framework that supports both long-term WUI planning and short-term seasonal early warning. The integration of fine scale WUI mapping with seasonal susceptibility modeling enhances wildfire risk management in complex high-altitude regions. These findings provide a scientific basis for location-specific, time-sensitive, and full-chain wildfire management in mountainous landscapes and contribute to cross-border ecological security governance in the Indo-China Peninsula. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Combustion and Fire Safety of Wood: From Built Environments to Forests)
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34 pages, 8525 KB  
Article
Physics-Based Modelling of Pine Needle Surface Fires and a Single Douglas Fir Tree: Comparison with Experiments
by Mohamed Sharaf, Duncan Sutherland, Rahul Wadhwani and Khalid Moinuddin
Fire 2026, 9(3), 112; https://doi.org/10.3390/fire9030112 - 3 Mar 2026
Viewed by 664
Abstract
Wildland fires, including surface and crown fires, present significant challenges for ecosystems and forest management. Accurate fire modelling is crucial for risk assessment and mitigation strategies. The Fire Dynamics Simulator (FDS) v6.8.0, developed by the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST), is [...] Read more.
Wildland fires, including surface and crown fires, present significant challenges for ecosystems and forest management. Accurate fire modelling is crucial for risk assessment and mitigation strategies. The Fire Dynamics Simulator (FDS) v6.8.0, developed by the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST), is a physics-based model that simulates fire behaviour by incorporating advanced physics and chemistry. However, its reliability requires thorough validation. This study validates FDS 6.8.0’s performance in modelling both surface fires and single tree burning. Two separate simulation sets were conducted. For surface fires, pine needle fuel beds were used at a laboratory scale to examine fire behaviour on slopes of 0°, 10°, and 20°. The results were validated against experimental data. A burning Douglas fir tree was simulated, and the results were compared with experimental measurements. The surface fire simulations at 0° and 10° slopes showed strong agreement with experimental data. In single-tree burning, both experimental and simulated results exhibited similar trends, with a rapid increase to a peak mass-loss rate (MLR) followed by a gradual decline. Validating FDS 6.8.0 forms an essential first step toward supporting the investigation of complex wildland fire behaviour, such as surface-to-crown fire transition, canyon fire, and dynamic escalation, using the same FDS version. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Combustion and Fire Safety of Wood: From Built Environments to Forests)
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16 pages, 4052 KB  
Article
Impact of Combustible Linings in the Simulated Fluid Dynamics of a Compartment Fire
by Ignacio Calderón, Agustín H. Majdalani and Wolfram Jahn
Fire 2026, 9(2), 80; https://doi.org/10.3390/fire9020080 - 12 Feb 2026
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 600
Abstract
The increasing use of engineered timber in modern architecture raises critical concerns about fire safety, particularly when combustible linings are exposed within compartments. Classical compartment fire framework, largely derived from non-combustible enclosures, may not adequately capture the dynamics introduced by materials such as [...] Read more.
The increasing use of engineered timber in modern architecture raises critical concerns about fire safety, particularly when combustible linings are exposed within compartments. Classical compartment fire framework, largely derived from non-combustible enclosures, may not adequately capture the dynamics introduced by materials such as cross-laminated timber (CLT). This study investigates how combustible linings influence the fluid dynamic fields of compartment fires derived from the thermal field using CFD simulations informed by experimental data. A series of configurations, from inert to fully lined compartments, were analysed to isolate the effect of burning boundaries. Results show a progressive intensification of fire conditions with additional combustible surfaces: upper-layer temperatures approach 900 °C, smoke layers thicken, and stratification becomes more pronounced. Velocity fields are similarly affected, with peak inflow and outflow velocities doubling compared to the inert case and new vortical structures emerging near burning walls. These findings highlight that exposed CLT significantly amplifies radiative and convective heat feedback, modifying both temperature distributions and flow patterns in ways not captured by the traditional framework based on the inverse opening factor. This underscores the need for performance-based fire design approaches integrating both thermal and fluid dynamic perspectives, ensuring safe implementation of timber in modern construction. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Combustion and Fire Safety of Wood: From Built Environments to Forests)
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27 pages, 11596 KB  
Article
A Study on Fire Prevention Strategies for Bamboo-Wood Frames and Natural Vegetation Roofs in Southwest China Based on FDS: A Case Study of Wengding Village, Yunnan
by Xiyao Huang, Yinghan Li and Xinyi Huang
Fire 2025, 8(11), 449; https://doi.org/10.3390/fire8110449 - 20 Nov 2025
Viewed by 1771
Abstract
In Southwest China, traditional wooden buildings in historic villages commonly feature natural vegetation roofing materials, such as thatch or bamboo shingles, which are highly susceptible to fire. Existing research has primarily focused on traditional timber-frame buildings with tiled roofs, while limited attention has [...] Read more.
In Southwest China, traditional wooden buildings in historic villages commonly feature natural vegetation roofing materials, such as thatch or bamboo shingles, which are highly susceptible to fire. Existing research has primarily focused on traditional timber-frame buildings with tiled roofs, while limited attention has been given to those with natural vegetation roofs. This study, taking Wengding village in Cangyuan Wa Autonomous County, Yunnan Province, as an exemplary case, conducts a fire risk assessment and explores fire prevention strategies for buildings with bamboo-wood frames and natural vegetation roofs on the basis of Fire Dynamics Simulator (FDS): the application of fire-retardant coatings, the use of synthetic thatched roofing materials, and a combination of both. The results indicate that the strategy employing synthetic thatched roofing materials offers the best fire resistance performance. By integrating traditional fire prevention knowledge with modern technologies, this study provides a scientifically grounded reference for mitigating fire risks in historic buildings with natural vegetation roofs in China’s ethnic minority regions, aiming to enhance fire safety while preserving architectural authenticity. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Combustion and Fire Safety of Wood: From Built Environments to Forests)
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