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A special issue of Energies (ISSN 1996-1073).

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (31 August 2015) | Viewed by 89840

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Special Issue Editor

Prof. Dr. Thorsten Staake

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Energy Efficient Systems, Otto-Friedrich-Universität Bamberg, Bamberg, Germany
Interests: energy information systems; smart grid data analytics; smart metering; information systems for behavior change

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

The energy system we know today is expected to undergo a massive transformation in the upcoming decade. The development is driven by the wish of many decision makers to reduce the dependency on oil and gas and to cut the emission of greenhouse gases, and it is fuelled by the advent of renewable energy sources and the availability of cost-effective, sophisticated communication and control systems. Within the electricity sector, the transformation is especially pronounced due to the large number of new, distributed generation systems, the necessity to continuously balance supply and demand, and the new role of the consumer who can also feed in electricity from PV-installations or combined heat and power systems.

Smart Meters play a vital role to cope with the growing complexity of the electrical grid. The meters measure and communicate consumption data at a high resolution in time, provide information on the status of the grid, and, depending on the system design, can operate load switches. This rather limited set of functions renders possible a plethora of applications and services, including advanced load shifting programs (via dynamic tariffs or direct control of appliances), energy saving campaigns (by making electricity use “visible” and, thus, more salient to consumers), fine-grained monitoring of the distribution grid, more efficient business processes for billing, changing providers, and flexible tariff plans, and the integration of consumers into the grid that also feed in electricity. Future applications may arise in the field of consumption data analytics (e.g., for marketing purposes or for more powerful saving campaigns), home automation (e.g., by using consumption data for advanced control), and mobility (e.g., by integrating (hybrid) electric vehicles into the grid).

However, at the same time, Smart Meters pose a number of challenges to researchers and practitioners. This Special Issue invites articles that address these challenges, as well as new developments related to Smart Meters and their application, including, but not limited to, the following fields:

Energy Networks: Techniques to deal with stochastic energy sources, integration of distributed power and storage systems (including e-mobility), ICT for grid management and control, smart metering infrastructures, and sensor networks.
Buildings: Integration of building automation and heating systems in energy networks, applications of smart metering and feedback technologies.
Cross-Sectionals: Techniques to protect critical energy infrastructure and consumer privacy, interoperability, analytics for energy data, information systems that aim at motivating/supporting sustainable consumer behavior, simulation, modeling, and business process innovation in the related domains.

Prof. Dr. Thorsten Staake
Guest Editor

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Keywords

demand response management
network integration of distributed power and storage systems
network integration of plug in hybrids and electric vehicles
Interoperability and security of grid components
feedback technologies for behavior change
ICT-based energy services
impact assessments

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Published Papers (10 papers)

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Research

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16 pages, 383 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Analysis of the Channel Influence to Power Line Communications Based on ITU-T G.9904 (PRIME)

by Asier Llano, Itziar Angulo, Pablo Angueira, Txetxu Arzuaga and David De la Vega

Energies 2016, 9(1), 39; https://doi.org/10.3390/en9010039 - 12 Jan 2016

Cited by 16 | Viewed by 5689

Abstract

ITU-T G.9904 standard, also known as PoweRline Intelligent Metering Evolution (PRIME), is a Power Line Communications standard for advanced metering, grid control and asset monitoring defined by the International Telecommunication Union (ITU). In this paper, an analysis about how different characteristics of the communication channel and types of noise might affect the system performance is carried out. This study is based on simulations of the PRIME physical layer using different channel characteristics and transmission parameters. The conclusions obtained are very valuable for better understanding the behavior of the ITU-T G.9904 (PRIME) standard in the field, allowing future improvements in deployment strategies and equipment design. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Smart Metering)

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27 pages, 6279 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Adaptation of Powerline Communications-Based Smart Metering Deployments to the Requirements of Smart Grids

by Alberto Sendin, Txetxu Arzuaga, Iker Urrutia, Iñigo Berganza, Ainara Fernandez, Laura Marron, Asier Llano and Aitor Arzuaga

Energies 2015, 8(12), 13481-13507; https://doi.org/10.3390/en81212372 - 30 Nov 2015

Cited by 27 | Viewed by 8081

Abstract

Powerline communications (PLC)-based smart meter deployments are now a reality in many regions of the world. Although PLC elements are generally incorporated in smart meters and data concentrators, the underlying PLC network allows the integration of other smart grid services directly over it. The remote control capabilities that automation programs need and are today deployed over their medium voltage (MV) grid, can be extended to the low voltage (LV) grid through these existing PLC networks. This paper demonstrates the capabilities of narrowband high data rate (NB HDR) PLC technologies deployed over LV grids for smart metering purposes to support internet protocol internet protocol (IP) communications in the LV grid. The paper demonstrates these possibilities with the presentation of the simulation and laboratory results of IP communications over international telecommunication union: ITU-T G.9904 PLC technology, and the definition of a PLC Network Management System based on a simple network management protocol (SNMP) management information base (MIB) definition and applicable use cases. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Smart Metering)

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17 pages, 313 KiB

Open AccessArticle

An Application of Spectral Kurtosis to Separate Hybrid Power Quality Events

by Juan José González De la Rosa, José María Sierra-Fernández, José Carlos Palomares-Salas, Agustín Agüera-Pérez and Álvaro Jiménez Montero

Energies 2015, 8(9), 9777-9793; https://doi.org/10.3390/en8099777 - 9 Sep 2015

Cited by 13 | Viewed by 4708

Abstract

For the development of the future smart grid, the detection of power quality events is a key issue for the power system monitoring. Voltage sags, swells, harmonics (variations) and interruptions, which produce large losses for commercial and industrial consumers, are the main events to be considered due to the sensitivity of equipment to these electrical anomalies. The steady-state events are even more frequently accompanied by transients, the discrimination and localization being far more exigent and requiring advanced signal separating tools to be incorporated in the measurement equipment. This paper shows the event detection performance of the spectral kurtosis as a signal separating tool in the frequency domain. The disturbances under test are hybrid signals resulting from the coupling between amplitude defects and non-desired higher frequencies. Being a fourth-order spectrum, the kurtosis is confirmed as a noise-resistant tool that enhances impulsiveness, therefore characterizing the electrical anomalies. In the beginning of the analysis, the voltage sag is established as a reference; then, the disturbances (oscillatory transients and harmonics) are coupled at the starting and ending instants of the sag, resulting in complex hybrid events. The results show that the spectral kurtosis enhances the detection Energies 2015, 8 9778 of both types of events (steady state and transients), which are outlined in a bump shape in the fourth-order frequency pattern and centered in the main carrier frequency. Indeed, while the oscillatory transients are associated with softer and lower-amplitude peaks, the harmonics correspond to crisper and higher ones. As these mixed electrical faults are very common in the actual power grid, the article postulates the higher-order spectra to be implemented in prospective online measurement instruments. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Smart Metering)

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15 pages, 3026 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Novel Choice Procedure of Magnetic Component Values for Phase Shifted Full Bridge Converters with a Variable Dead-Time Control Method

by Lei Zhao, Haoyu Li, Yanxue Yu and Yantian Wang

Energies 2015, 8(9), 9655-9669; https://doi.org/10.3390/en8099655 - 4 Sep 2015

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 7015

Abstract

Magnetic components are important parts of the phase shifted full bridge (PSFB) converter. During the dead-time of switches located in the same leg, the converter can achieve zero-voltage-switching (ZVS) by using the energies stored in magnetic components to discharge or charge the output capacitances of switches. Dead-time is usually calculated under a given set of pre-defined load condition which results in that the available energies are insufficient and ZVS capability is lost at light loads. In this paper, the PSFB converter is controlled by variable dead-time method and thus full advantage can be taken of the energies stored in magnetic components. Considering that dead-time has a great effect on ZVS, the relationship between available energies and magnetic component values is formulated by analyzing the equivalent circuits during dead-time intervals. Magnetic component values are chosen based on such relationship. The proposed choice procedure can make the available energies greater than the required energies for ZVS operation over a wide range of load conditions. Moreover, the burst mode control is adopted in order to reduce the standby power loss. Experimental results coincide with the theoretical analysis. The proposed method is a simple and practical solution to extend the ZVS range. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Smart Metering)

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32 pages, 1088 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Closed-Loop Control Strategy for Air Conditioning Loads to Participate in Demand Response

by Xiaoqing Hu, Beibei Wang, Shengchun Yang, Taylor Short and Lei Zhou

Energies 2015, 8(8), 8650-8681; https://doi.org/10.3390/en8088650 - 14 Aug 2015

Cited by 23 | Viewed by 8542

Abstract

Thermostatically controlled loads (TCLs), such as air conditioners (ACs), are important demand response resources—they have a certain heat storage capacity. A change in the operating status of an air conditioner in a small range will not noticeably affect the users’ comfort level. Load control of TCLs is considered to be equivalent to a power plant of the same capacity in effect, and it can significantly reduce the system pressure to peak load shift. The thermodynamic model of air conditioning can be used to study the aggregate power of a number of ACs that respond to the step signal of a temperature set point. This paper analyzes the influence of the parameters of each AC in the group to the indoor temperature and the total load, and derives a simplified control model based on the two order linear time invariant transfer function. Then, the stability of the model and designs its Proportional-Integral-Differential (PID) controller based on the particle swarm optimization (PSO) algorithm is also studied. The case study presented in this paper simulates both scenarios of constant ambient temperature and changing ambient temperature to verify the proposed transfer function model and control strategy can closely track the reference peak load shifting curves. The study also demonstrates minimal changes in the indoor temperature and the users’ comfort level. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Smart Metering)

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20 pages, 450 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Novel Segmentation Technique for Measured Three-Phase Voltage Dips

by Isabel M. Moreno-Garcia, Antonio Moreno-Munoz, Aurora Gil-de-Castro, Math Bollen and Irene Y. H. Gu

Energies 2015, 8(8), 8319-8338; https://doi.org/10.3390/en8088319 - 6 Aug 2015

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 4918

Abstract

This paper focuses on issues arising from the need to automatically analyze disturbances in the future (smart) grid. Accurate time allocation of events and the sequences of events is an important part of such an analysis. The performance of a joint causal and anti-causal (CaC) segmentation method has been analyzed with a set of real measurement signals, using an alternative detection technique based on a cumulative sum (CUSUM) algorithm. The results show that the location in time of underlying transitions in the power system can be more accurately estimated by combining CaC segmentation methods. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Smart Metering)

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21 pages, 2044 KiB

Open AccessArticle

An Optimal PR Control Strategy with Load Current Observer for a Three-Phase Voltage Source Inverter

by Xiaobo Dou, Kang Yang, Xiangjun Quan, Qinran Hu, Zaijun Wu, Bo Zhao, Peng Li, Shizhan Zhang and Yang Jiao

Energies 2015, 8(8), 7542-7562; https://doi.org/10.3390/en8087542 - 24 Jul 2015

Cited by 18 | Viewed by 11897

Abstract

Inverter voltage control is an important task in the operation of a DC/AC microgrid system. To improve the inverter voltage control dynamics, traditional approaches attempt to measure and feedforward the load current, which, however, needs remote measurement with communications in a microgrid system with distributed loads. In this paper, a load current observer (LCO) based control strategy, which does not need remote measurement, is proposed for sinusoidal signals tracking control of a three-phase inverter of the microgrid. With LCO, the load current is estimated precisely, acting as the feedforward of the dual-loop control, which can effectively enlarge the stability margin of the control system and improve the dynamic response to load disturbance. Furthermore, multiple PR regulators are applied in this strategy conducted in a stationary frame to suppress the transient fluctuations and the total harmonic distortion (THD) of the output voltage and achieve faster transient performance compared with traditional dual-loop control in a rotating dq0 frame under instantaneous change of various types of load (i.e., balanced load, unbalanced load, and nonlinear load). The parameters of multiple PR regulators are analyzed and selected through the root locus method and the stability of the whole control system is evaluated and analyzed. Finally, the validity of the proposed approach is verified through simulations and a three-phase prototype test system with a TMS320F28335 DSP. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Smart Metering)

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21 pages, 1603 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Data Mining Techniques for Detecting Household Characteristics Based on Smart Meter Data

by Krzysztof Gajowniczek and Tomasz Ząbkowski

Energies 2015, 8(7), 7407-7427; https://doi.org/10.3390/en8077407 - 22 Jul 2015

Cited by 62 | Viewed by 8424

Abstract

The main goal of this research is to discover the structure of home appliances usage patterns, hence providing more intelligence in smart metering systems by taking into account the usage of selected home appliances and the time of their usage. In particular, we present and apply a set of unsupervised machine learning techniques to reveal specific usage patterns observed at an individual household. The work delivers the solutions applicable in smart metering systems that might: (1) contribute to higher energy awareness; (2) support accurate usage forecasting; and (3) provide the input for demand response systems in homes with timely energy saving recommendations for users. The results provided in this paper show that determining household characteristics from smart meter data is feasible and allows for quickly grasping general trends in data. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Smart Metering)

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21 pages, 841 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Quantitative Vulnerability Assessment of Cyber Security for Distribution Automation Systems

by Xiaming Ye, Junhua Zhao, Yan Zhang and Fushuan Wen

Energies 2015, 8(6), 5266-5286; https://doi.org/10.3390/en8065266 - 3 Jun 2015

Cited by 24 | Viewed by 7317

Abstract

The distribution automation system (DAS) is vulnerable to cyber-attacks due to the widespread use of terminal devices and standard communication protocols. On account of the cost of defense, it is impossible to ensure the security of every device in the DAS. Given this background, a novel quantitative vulnerability assessment model of cyber security for DAS is developed in this paper. In the assessment model, the potential physical consequences of cyber-attacks are analyzed from two levels: terminal device level and control center server level. Then, the attack process is modeled based on game theory and the relationships among different vulnerabilities are analyzed by introducing a vulnerability adjacency matrix. Finally, the application process of the proposed methodology is illustrated through a case study based on bus 2 of the Roy Billinton Test System (RBTS). The results demonstrate the reasonability and effectiveness of the proposed methodology. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Smart Metering)

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Review

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33 pages, 1046 KiB

Open AccessReview

Smart Home Communication Technologies and Applications: Wireless Protocol Assessment for Home Area Network Resources

by Tiago D. P. Mendes, Radu Godina, Eduardo M. G. Rodrigues, João C. O. Matias and João P. S. Catalão

Energies 2015, 8(7), 7279-7311; https://doi.org/10.3390/en8077279 - 20 Jul 2015

Cited by 123 | Viewed by 21469

Abstract

The paper discusses Home Area Networks (HAN) communication technologies for smart home and domestic application integration. The work is initiated by identifying the application areas that can benefit from this integration. A broad and inclusive home communication interface is analysed utilizing as a key piece a Gateway based on machine-to-machine (M2M) communications that interacts with the surrounding environment. Then, the main wireless networks are thoroughly assessed, and later, their suitability to the requirements of HAN considering the application area is analysed. Finally, a qualitative analysis is portrayed. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Smart Metering)

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