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Economies
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Income Distribution, Inequality and Poverty: Evidence, Explanations and Policies
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Income Distribution, Inequality and Poverty: Evidence, Explanations and Policies

A special issue of Economies (ISSN 2227-7099).

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (31 July 2024) | Viewed by 25802

Printed Edition Available!
A printed edition of this Special Issue is available here.

Special Issue Editor

Dr. Fabio Clementi

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Guest Editor
Department of Political Science, Communication and International Relations, University of Macerata, Via Don Minzoni 22/A, 62100 Macerata, Italy
Interests: personal income, wealth and their distributions; parametric and nonparametric methods for the analysis of socio-economic phenomena; computational techniques and simulation modeling; econophysics and economic complexity; business cycle analysis

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

In many developed and developing countries, income distribution has evolved in recent decades, leading to rising rich–poor disparity, a shrinking middle class, and an increase in public demand for redistribution. There is also increasingly compelling evidence that growing income inequality has negative consequences for economic growth and poverty reduction, and tends to exacerbate the risk of crises of different kinds (social, financial, economic, and even migration). Thus, after the Great Recession of 2007–2009 and the more recent COVID-19 pandemic, which renewed concerns about inequality, poverty, and the ability of the global economy to fully recover from the ensuing crises, the issue of inequality in income distribution has returned to the forefront of economics research, after having long been ignored by economists and social scientists in general.

The goal of this Special Issue is to yield a better understanding of domestic and international patterns of income distribution. The Editor encourages submissions providing applied economic analyses of inequality and poverty trends, their fundamental determinants and main policy implications, both in a comparative perspective and in single countries. The scope of submission also includes original research articles proposing advances in the field of econometric methods for the measurement of inequality and poverty.

Dr. Fabio Clementi
Guest Editor

Manuscript Submission Information

Manuscripts should be submitted online at www.mdpi.com by registering and logging in to this website. Once you are registered, click here to go to the submission form. Manuscripts can be submitted until the deadline. All submissions that pass pre-check are peer-reviewed. Accepted papers will be published continuously in the journal (as soon as accepted) and will be listed together on the special issue website. Research articles, review articles as well as short communications are invited. For planned papers, a title and short abstract (about 100 words) can be sent to the Editorial Office for announcement on this website.

Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a single-blind peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. Economies is an international peer-reviewed open access monthly journal published by MDPI.

Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. The Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal is 1800 CHF (Swiss Francs). Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.

Keywords

  • functional and personal income distribution
  • trends in within-country inequality and poverty
  • global distribution of income
  • polarization, middle class, social conflict
  • wealth distribution and concentration
  • top income shares and the long-run perspective on income inequality
  • gender inequality
  • attitudes to income inequality
  • labor market institutions and wage inequality
  • inequality, poverty and the role of policy
  • looking beyond “income” inequality
  • statistical methods for distributional analysis

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Published Papers (12 papers)

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Editorial

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4 pages, 135 KiB  
Editorial
Income Distribution, Inequality and Poverty: Evidence, Explanations and Policies
by Fabio Clementi
Economies 2024, 12(10), 276; https://doi.org/10.3390/economies12100276 - 14 Oct 2024
Viewed by 2696
Abstract
In recent years, there has been an increasing focus on the complex challenges posed by income inequality and poverty, both in developed and developing nations [...] Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Income Distribution, Inequality and Poverty: Evidence, Explanations and Policies)

Research

Jump to: Editorial

23 pages, 1283 KiB  
Article
Impact of Energy Crises on Income Inequality: An Application of Piketty’s Hypothesis to Pakistan
by Jibran Hussain, Saeed Siyal, Riaz Ahmad, Qaiser Abbas, Yu Yitian and Liu Jin
Economies 2024, 12(10), 259; https://doi.org/10.3390/economies12100259 - 24 Sep 2024
Viewed by 1202
Abstract
In Pakistan, the majority of people have access to energy supplies. However, people who are underprivileged, below the extreme poverty line, or part of the middle class often spend disproportionate portions of their income on energy supplies and services, to some extent because [...] Read more.
In Pakistan, the majority of people have access to energy supplies. However, people who are underprivileged, below the extreme poverty line, or part of the middle class often spend disproportionate portions of their income on energy supplies and services, to some extent because of higher upfront prices for energy supplies, expensive products, and expensive imported appliances. The nonavailability of low-cost energy supplies is mainly affecting underdeveloped regions that have mostly low-income households. We used the dynamic ordinary least squares method to look at the impact of the energy crisis on income inequality from 1997 to 2021. The results show that the energy crisis exacerbates income inequality as low-income groups end up spending more significant shares of their income on energy products, supplies, and services than higher-income groups. Fair and equal access to energy supplies and services is less likely to reduce income inequality if prices are not cost-efficient. Cautious deliberation regarding the structure of energy tariffs is inevitable; at the same time, safety nets and social security programs for the poorest groups need to be expanded. At this stage, the aim is to target energy prices that will achieve the objectives of reducing polarity and increasing real income. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Income Distribution, Inequality and Poverty: Evidence, Explanations and Policies)
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17 pages, 349 KiB  
Article
Determinants of Income Inequality in South Africa: A Vector Error Correction Model Approach
by Molepa Seabela, Kanayo Ogujiuba and Maria Eggink
Economies 2024, 12(7), 169; https://doi.org/10.3390/economies12070169 - 1 Jul 2024
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1850
Abstract
The issue of income disparity has long plagued South Africa because of the political environment that existed before the country’s 1994 democratic transition. Based on the widely used Gini index, which gauges global inequality, the nation routinely has some of the highest rates [...] Read more.
The issue of income disparity has long plagued South Africa because of the political environment that existed before the country’s 1994 democratic transition. Based on the widely used Gini index, which gauges global inequality, the nation routinely has some of the highest rates of income disparity in the world. Income inequality in South Africa keeps rising even after a number of frameworks and policies have been put in place, which has a big influence on society. Thus, it is essential to comprehend the causes of income disparity and put suitable policies in place to remedy it. The purpose of this study is to look into the relationship between South Africa’s income disparity and its determinants. Using the Vector Error Correction Model (VECM) approach, this study empirically examines the effects of government spending on social grants, gross savings, population growth, and economic growth on income inequality from 1975 to 2017. Data on the Gini index are sourced from the Standardized World Income Inequality Database (SWIID). Findings reveal a statistically significant negative correlation between government spending on social grants and income inequality. Moreover, income inequality demonstrates a negative relationship with both gross savings and economic growth. However, population growth exhibits a positive correlation with income inequality. This study highlights the significance of implementing a comprehensive strategy to address income inequality in South Africa. This strategy should involve augmenting government expenditure on social grants, cultivating a savings culture within households, and enacting policies that incentivize job creation, particularly in areas with rapid population growth. In addition to making a substantial contribution to the body of evidence already available on income disparity, this study offers insightful information to policymakers working to improve the socioeconomic climate in South Africa. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Income Distribution, Inequality and Poverty: Evidence, Explanations and Policies)
17 pages, 2374 KiB  
Article
The Timing and Strength of Inequality Concerns in the UK Public Debate: Google Trends, Elections and the Macroeconomy
by Knut Lehre Seip and Frode Eika Sandnes
Economies 2024, 12(6), 135; https://doi.org/10.3390/economies12060135 - 30 May 2024
Viewed by 1050
Abstract
Inequality among people has several unwanted effects, in humanistic, social and economic contexts. Several studies address distributional preferences among groups, but little is known about when inequality issues are focused and when and why inequality abatement measures are brought on the political agenda. [...] Read more.
Inequality among people has several unwanted effects, in humanistic, social and economic contexts. Several studies address distributional preferences among groups, but little is known about when inequality issues are focused and when and why inequality abatement measures are brought on the political agenda. We show that during the period 2004 to 2023, inequality issues were focused during elections to the EU and UK parliament and with greatest strength during the elections to the EU parliament in May 2004 and to the UK parliament in May 2015. Periods with high unemployment and inflation cause the discussion on inequality to be followed by discussions on inequality measures. However, when the discussion of inequality is followed very closely by the discussions of abatement measures, inequality aversion becomes more strongly associated with the macroeconomic variables inflation and GDP (recessions) than with unemployment and more strongly associated with the concerns for fairness than concerns with war and crime. The results were obtained examining Google Trends and scholarly studies. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Income Distribution, Inequality and Poverty: Evidence, Explanations and Policies)
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13 pages, 589 KiB  
Article
Patterns of Intergenerational Educational (Im)Mobility
by Enzo Valentini
Economies 2024, 12(6), 126; https://doi.org/10.3390/economies12060126 - 21 May 2024
Viewed by 1962
Abstract
Intergenerational education mobility is a key dimension of social mobility and explores the extent to which educational attainment is transmitted across generations within a society. The implications of low education mobility concern both equity (everyone should have the same opportunities) and efficiency (it [...] Read more.
Intergenerational education mobility is a key dimension of social mobility and explores the extent to which educational attainment is transmitted across generations within a society. The implications of low education mobility concern both equity (everyone should have the same opportunities) and efficiency (it would be good for the economy and society if the most gifted and deserving young people were to study and not the children of the already educated). The literature identifies several drivers that can influence the level of social mobility in general and education mobility specifically, including characteristics of educational systems, public spending, degree of urbanisation, informal frictions, and beliefs. This paper seeks to identify ‘patterns of intergenerational education (im)mobility’ through a cluster analysis that takes into account the level of intergenerational mobility in education and a number of variables concerning its possible drivers, considering data on 82 countries (with different levels of development). The advantage of cluster analysis lies in the possibility of identifying regularities, but avoiding reasoning ‘on average’, i.e., safeguarding the possibility that different social patterns may exist. The results also allow us to speculate on possible policies to increase school mobility, highlighting, among other things, the ‘equalising’ role played by public spending on education. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Income Distribution, Inequality and Poverty: Evidence, Explanations and Policies)
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17 pages, 1361 KiB  
Article
The Impact of the Great Recession on Well-Being across Europe Ten Years On: A Cluster Analysis
by Elisabetta Croci Angelini, Francesco Farina and Silvia Sorana
Economies 2024, 12(5), 115; https://doi.org/10.3390/economies12050115 - 10 May 2024
Viewed by 1379
Abstract
To evaluate variations in the well-being dimensions of European citizens, we rely upon Principal Component Analysis methodology, whereby a large set of interrelated indicators are reduced to a small number of aggregate synthetic variables. We find that the 2008 crisis impinged differently on [...] Read more.
To evaluate variations in the well-being dimensions of European citizens, we rely upon Principal Component Analysis methodology, whereby a large set of interrelated indicators are reduced to a small number of aggregate synthetic variables. We find that the 2008 crisis impinged differently on the various dimensions of well-being. The evolution of the indicators has affected different clusters of countries in various ways. Most importantly, we observe that there has been a shift of the principal component from the poor in terms of material deprivation to the risk of poverty for the worsening conditions in the labor market. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Income Distribution, Inequality and Poverty: Evidence, Explanations and Policies)
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13 pages, 230 KiB  
Article
The Fabric of Transition: Unraveling the Weave of Labor Dynamics, Economic Structures, and Innovation on Income Disparities in Central and Eastern Europe Nations
by Adriana AnaMaria Davidescu, Oana-Ramona Lobonţ and Tamara Maria Nae
Economies 2024, 12(3), 68; https://doi.org/10.3390/economies12030068 - 14 Mar 2024
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1710
Abstract
In recent years, the issue of income inequality has ascended to the forefront of national and international agendas, underscored by the urgency to navigate the complexities of market-driven economies without exacerbating social disparities. These challenges are particularly pronounced in the post-communist nations of [...] Read more.
In recent years, the issue of income inequality has ascended to the forefront of national and international agendas, underscored by the urgency to navigate the complexities of market-driven economies without exacerbating social disparities. These challenges are particularly pronounced in the post-communist nations of Central and Eastern Europe, where the transition legacy and the marketization forces present unique dynamics in the evolution of income disparities. This research investigates the intricate mechanisms through which marketization impacts income inequality within the Central and Eastern European countries context, aiming to uncover how economic transformations influenced by global sustainability goals can contribute to narrowing the income gap. By employing panel data estimation techniques and Generalized Method of Moments (GMM) analysis, this study highlights the enduring nature of income disparities and the critical roles played by economic growth, education investment, labor market reforms, globalization, and governance quality in shaping equitable income distributions. Findings reveal that, despite the competitive nature of market economies potentially creating disparities, strategic policy interventions in education, economic policy, and labor market regulations can mitigate the adverse effects of marketization on income inequality. Additionally, this research emphasizes the importance of strong institutional frameworks and the nuanced role of the informal economy in influencing income distribution dynamics. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Income Distribution, Inequality and Poverty: Evidence, Explanations and Policies)
25 pages, 1906 KiB  
Article
From Policy to Impact: Advancing Economic Development and Tackling Social Inequities in Central and Eastern Europe
by Adriana AnaMaria Davidescu, Tamara Maria Nae and Margareta-Stela Florescu
Economies 2024, 12(2), 28; https://doi.org/10.3390/economies12020028 - 24 Jan 2024
Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2339
Abstract
This study challenges the traditional reliance on GDP as the sole indicator of the success of the EU’s cohesion policy, aligning with the evolving academic discourse that calls for a broader spectrum of metrics incorporating social factors. The research aims to assess the [...] Read more.
This study challenges the traditional reliance on GDP as the sole indicator of the success of the EU’s cohesion policy, aligning with the evolving academic discourse that calls for a broader spectrum of metrics incorporating social factors. The research aims to assess the impact of cohesion on economic performance and social progress at the regional level in Central and Eastern European countries, using regression analysis on panel data. Inspired by the call to move beyond GDP-focused assessments, this research re-evaluates cohesion policy within an expanded framework that prioritizes economic and social dimensions. Specifically, it addresses the escalating concerns of income disparity and poverty in Central and Eastern European nations. Utilizing panel data regression models, this study scrutinizes data from 2007 to 2018, covering two recent programming periods, to offer a comprehensive, multifaceted analysis of the impact of cohesion policy. It underscores the policy’s dual role in spurring economic growth and fostering social progress, particularly in mitigating income inequality and reducing poverty. The findings reveal that cohesion policies positively affect both economic performance and social progress, with notable impacts on narrowing the income gap and alleviating poverty in these regions. However, the economic benefits for poverty reduction materialize over a prolonged period, reflecting the gradual nature of policy impact and the time needed for investments to materialize. The study emphasizes the need for a long-term strategic vision in implementing cohesion policies. This includes enhanced data collection, a deeper focus on the social ramifications of policies, streamlined policy processes, capacity building, institutional strengthening, and prioritizing equitable opportunities to bridge income gaps effectively. This comprehensive approach aims to maximize the dual benefits of cohesion policies, promoting balanced economic and social progress across Central and Eastern Europe. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Income Distribution, Inequality and Poverty: Evidence, Explanations and Policies)
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23 pages, 696 KiB  
Article
Does Gender Equality in Managerial Positions Improve the Gender Wage Gap? Comparative Evidence from Europe
by Lidia de Castro Romero, Víctor Martín Barroso and Rosa Santero-Sánchez
Economies 2023, 11(12), 301; https://doi.org/10.3390/economies11120301 - 14 Dec 2023
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 2570
Abstract
In this paper, we analyse the impact of gender equality in managerial positions on wages and the gender wage gap in 22 European countries. We draw on the employer–employee microdata from the European Structure of Earnings Survey (E-SES) for the year 2018, which [...] Read more.
In this paper, we analyse the impact of gender equality in managerial positions on wages and the gender wage gap in 22 European countries. We draw on the employer–employee microdata from the European Structure of Earnings Survey (E-SES) for the year 2018, which allows us to include firm fixed effects in our econometric specifications, thus controlling for both observed and unobserved heterogeneity at the firm level. The analysis is carried out not only at the mean but also across the wage distribution through unconditional quantile regressions. The results on the impact of gender equality in management on wages are mixed. However, we find that gender equality has a predominantly positive effect in the upper part of the wage distribution, and a negative effect in the middle and lower parts. The results on the impact on the gender wage gap show that in many cases, a more gender-equal management reduces the gender wage gap. Furthermore, gender equality in management reduces the gender wage gap mainly in the middle and lower part of the wage distribution. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Income Distribution, Inequality and Poverty: Evidence, Explanations and Policies)
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18 pages, 2449 KiB  
Article
Unraveling the Roots of Income Polarization in Europe: A Divided Continent
by Michele Fabiani
Economies 2023, 11(8), 217; https://doi.org/10.3390/economies11080217 - 16 Aug 2023
Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2407
Abstract
The issue of polarization, as opposed to inequality, has been little explored in European countries. In this paper, using data provided by the Luxembourg Income Studies Database, we look at the trend of income polarization in 12 European countries, the only ones available [...] Read more.
The issue of polarization, as opposed to inequality, has been little explored in European countries. In this paper, using data provided by the Luxembourg Income Studies Database, we look at the trend of income polarization in 12 European countries, the only ones available with two comparable years, using the relative distribution method. The results clearly show a trend toward polarization in almost the cases analyzed, with a concentrated prevalence in the lower tail of the distribution, thus observing a worsening in the distribution. Next, we look at drivers that may have contributed to these changes, using the RIF-regression method. It is interesting to observe how these characteristics are in many cases common across all countries: the occupational sector, level of education and area of residence have the same impact, albeit with different intensities, in all countries. This suggests the possibility of coordinated intervention across these nations, acting on the same variables for all of them. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Income Distribution, Inequality and Poverty: Evidence, Explanations and Policies)
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8 pages, 224 KiB  
Communication
Wage Inequality’s Decreasing Effect on Enterprise Operating Revenues
by Jarle Aarstad and Olav Andreas Kvitastein
Economies 2023, 11(7), 178; https://doi.org/10.3390/economies11070178 - 30 Jun 2023
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1429
Abstract
This study assesses whether wage inequality affects enterprises’ operating revenues and whether operating revenues reversely affect wage inequality. To study our research questions, we analyze panel data from Norway and find that wage inequality decreases operating revenues. I.e., increasing high earners’ wages relative [...] Read more.
This study assesses whether wage inequality affects enterprises’ operating revenues and whether operating revenues reversely affect wage inequality. To study our research questions, we analyze panel data from Norway and find that wage inequality decreases operating revenues. I.e., increasing high earners’ wages relative to those earning low ones—or decreasing low earners’ wages relative to those earning high ones—decreases operating revenues. It implies that wage inequality is detrimental to enterprise performance. Reversely, decreasing operating revenues increases wage inequality. I.e., low earners’ wages are reduced relatively more than those earning high ones when enterprise revenues decrease. Increasing operating revenues, on the other hand, does not decrease wage inequality. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Income Distribution, Inequality and Poverty: Evidence, Explanations and Policies)
23 pages, 2640 KiB  
Article
The Impact of Recent Economic Crises on Income Inequality and the Risk of Poverty in Greece
by George Petrakos, Konstantinos Rontos, Chara Vavoura and Ioannis Vavouras
Economies 2023, 11(6), 166; https://doi.org/10.3390/economies11060166 - 13 Jun 2023
Cited by 9 | Viewed by 3464
Abstract
We consider the impact of the two recent economic crises, one that resulted from the great recession of 2007–2009 and one following the COVID-19 pandemic, on income inequality and the risk of poverty in Greece. To this end, we also investigate the key [...] Read more.
We consider the impact of the two recent economic crises, one that resulted from the great recession of 2007–2009 and one following the COVID-19 pandemic, on income inequality and the risk of poverty in Greece. To this end, we also investigate the key macroeconomic variables affecting the Greek income distribution. We find that alternative measures of inequality and relative poverty have deteriorated during the years of crises, implying that the country’s response to economic shocks has been particularly harmful for its more disadvantaged citizens. Regarding the variables affecting the income distribution, we show that income inequality and the risk of poverty increase with growth, implying that the benefits of growth, and burdens of recession, are distributed unequally among members of the Greek society. Moreover, inequality appears to increase with unemployment and decrease with the share of wages and salaries in total income. This finding highlights the importance of labour market regulations and workers’ welfare for attaining equality. Finally, we provide evidence that, during pre-election periods, income inequality is reduced, meaning that the political budget cycles, which are characteristic of the Greek economy, generate gains in terms of equality, but these gains are short-lived and mainly benefit the middle bracket of the income distribution. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Income Distribution, Inequality and Poverty: Evidence, Explanations and Policies)
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