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Carbon-Based Materials Applied in Water and Wastewater Treatment
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Carbon-Based Materials Applied in Water and Wastewater Treatment

A special issue of C (ISSN 2311-5629). This special issue belongs to the section "Carbon Materials and Carbon Allotropes".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: 29 August 2025 | Viewed by 17811

Special Issue Editor

Dr. Athanasia Tolkou

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
Department of Chemistry, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, GR-54124 Thessaloniki, Greece
Interests: water and wastewater treatment; coagulation; adsorption; arsenic removal; fluoride removal; chromate removal
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

This Special Issue aims to present the state-of-the-art research progress in the field of carbon-based nanomaterials applied in water and wastewater treatment. Over the last decade, the field of carbon nanostructures has become one of the fastest developing fields of science. In addition, new carbon materials (activated carbons, nanotubes, fullerenes, and graphene) with improved mechanical, electrical, chemical, and optical properties are predicted and considered to be very promising for water and wastewater treatment. With more than 2 billion people worldwide suffering from water scarcity, clean water is one of the most important natural resources on earth, whereas wastewater, which corresponds to spent water, can be considered as a valuable natural resource, if treated and reused.

Papers are invited to investigate innovative treatment options for aquatic environments by applying carbon-based materials. This Special Issue will bring into the spotlight contemporary research on the development and exploration of carbon materials in water and wastewater treatment, distinguished by their exceptional adsorptive capacities, high pollutant removal efficiencies, multifunctionality, structural stability, cost-effectiveness, and environmental congeniality. Topics may include, but are not limited to, studies on innovative integrated processes for the removal of emerging pollutants; the application of carbon-based materials in actual industrial wastewater; and novel carbon-based material synthesis technology. Water and wastewater treatment technologies that can deal with pollutants of concern to the aquatic environment, such as membrane filtration, adsorption, coagulation, ion exchange, biological processes, ozonation, and advanced oxidation processes or hybrid processes, are also of interest to investigate with applications from carbon-based materials.

This Special Issue collects original research and critical reviews about scientific and technical information. Case studies describing real-life applications of novel technologies are also very welcome.

Dr. Athanasia Tolkou
Guest Editor

Manuscript Submission Information

Manuscripts should be submitted online at www.mdpi.com by registering and logging in to this website. Once you are registered, click here to go to the submission form. Manuscripts can be submitted until the deadline. All submissions that pass pre-check are peer-reviewed. Accepted papers will be published continuously in the journal (as soon as accepted) and will be listed together on the special issue website. Research articles, review articles as well as short communications are invited. For planned papers, a title and short abstract (about 100 words) can be sent to the Editorial Office for announcement on this website.

Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a single-blind peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. C is an international peer-reviewed open access quarterly journal published by MDPI.

Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. The Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal is 1600 CHF (Swiss Francs). Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.

Keywords

  • membrane filtration
  • adsorption
  • coagulation
  • ozonation
  • hybrid processes
  • activated carbon
  • graphene oxide
  • carbon nanotubes
  • microplastics
  • heavy metals
  • pharmaceuticals
  • oxyanions
  • dyes
  • wastewaters

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Published Papers (10 papers)

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Research

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19 pages, 3581 KiB  
Article
Innovative X-Ray Absorption Technology for Improved Monitoring of the Degradation and Oxidation of Granular Activated Carbon Filters Used in Hospital Water Treatment Systems
by Jeamichel Puente Torres, Harold Crespo Sariol, Thayset Mariño Peacok, Tom Haeldermans, Guy Reggers, Jan Yperman, Peter Adriaensens, Robert Carleer and Dries Vandamme
C 2025, 11(2), 30; https://doi.org/10.3390/c11020030 - 28 Apr 2025
Abstract
This study introduces a novel, non-invasive X-ray absorption analysis (XRA) method to evaluate the photonic absorption process of granular activated carbon (GAC) in hospital water purification systems. By leveraging digital radiographic images, this innovative technique monitors the deterioration and oxidation of the GAC [...] Read more.
This study introduces a novel, non-invasive X-ray absorption analysis (XRA) method to evaluate the photonic absorption process of granular activated carbon (GAC) in hospital water purification systems. By leveraging digital radiographic images, this innovative technique monitors the deterioration and oxidation of the GAC filter, predicts its remaining lifetime, and estimates its water dechlorinating capacity. Analyzing the entire GAC filter and making a reuse possible, the new XRA method provides valuable insights into the filter’s condition, enhancing water purification efficiency and costs without analyzing subsamples. Complementary analytical techniques on subsamples, taken at various depths, did not yield valuable additional information of the GAC filter exhaustion condition, nor additionally make a reuse impossible. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Carbon-Based Materials Applied in Water and Wastewater Treatment)
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22 pages, 10051 KiB  
Article
Reuse of Activated Carbons from Filters for Water Treatment Derived from the Steam Cycle of a Nuclear Power Plant
by Beatriz Ledesma Cano, Eva M. Rodríguez, Juan Félix González González and Sergio Nogales-Delgado
C 2025, 11(1), 19; https://doi.org/10.3390/c11010019 - 3 Mar 2025
Viewed by 641
Abstract
Nuclear energy has a great impact on the global energy mix. In Spain, it supplies over 20% of current energy requirements, demonstrating the relevance of nuclear power plants. These plants generate different types of waste (apart from radioactive) that should be managed. For [...] Read more.
Nuclear energy has a great impact on the global energy mix. In Spain, it supplies over 20% of current energy requirements, demonstrating the relevance of nuclear power plants. These plants generate different types of waste (apart from radioactive) that should be managed. For instance, the activated carbon included in filters (which neutralize isotopes in a possible radioactive leakage) should be periodically replaced. Nevertheless, these activated carbons might present long service lives, as they have not undergone any adsorption processes. Consequently, a considerable amount of activated carbon can be reused in alternative processes, even in the same nuclear power plant. The aim of this work was to assess the use of activated carbons (previously included in filters to prevent possible radioactive releases in primary circuits) for water treatment derived from the steam cycle of a nuclear power plant. A regeneration process (boron removal) was carried out (with differences between untreated carbon and after treatments, from SBET = 684 m2 g−1 up to 934 m2 g−1), measuring the adsorption efficiency for ethanolamine and triton X-100. There were no significative results that support the adsorption effectiveness of the activated carbon tested for ethanolamine adsorption, whereas a high adsorption capacity was found for triton X-100 (qL1 = 281 mg·g−1), proving that factors such as porosity play an important role in the specific usage of activated carbons. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Carbon-Based Materials Applied in Water and Wastewater Treatment)
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17 pages, 4652 KiB  
Article
A New Monohydrogen Phosphate-Selective Carbon Composite Membrane Electrode for Soil Water Samples
by Ozlem Tavukcuoglu, Vildan Erci, Fatih Ciftci, Ibrahim Isildak and Muhammed Zahid Kasapoglu
C 2025, 11(1), 18; https://doi.org/10.3390/c11010018 - 1 Mar 2025
Viewed by 462
Abstract
This study focused on developing a novel composite phosphate-selective electrode for on-site and real-time applications using a silver polyglutaraldehyde phosphate and carbon nanotube (CNT) matrix. CNT-silver polyglutaraldehyde phosphate compound was synthesized and characterized using Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), scanning electron microscopy (SEM), X-ray [...] Read more.
This study focused on developing a novel composite phosphate-selective electrode for on-site and real-time applications using a silver polyglutaraldehyde phosphate and carbon nanotube (CNT) matrix. CNT-silver polyglutaraldehyde phosphate compound was synthesized and characterized using Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), scanning electron microscopy (SEM), X-ray diffraction (XRD), and thermogravimetric analysis (TGA). The potentiometric performance of the composite phosphate-selective electrode was then investigated. The results demonstrated that the composite phosphate-selective electrode exhibited good sensitivity, with a linear response in the concentration range of 1.0 × 10−4 to 1.0 × 10−2 M for phosphate ions. The electrode also showed high selectivity towards phosphate ions compared to other anions, such as chloride and nitrate. Additionally, the electrode displayed a quick response time of less than 15 s, making it suitable for real-time measurements. The electrode was applied to surface and soil water samples. The results obtained from the water samples showed a strong correlation with those obtained from the preferred spectrophotometry method, highlighting the potential of the developed electrode for on-site and continuous monitoring of phosphate and offering an efficient and practical solution for various fields that require phosphate detection. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Carbon-Based Materials Applied in Water and Wastewater Treatment)
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25 pages, 8926 KiB  
Article
Development and Characterization of Biomass-Derived Carbons for the Removal of Cu2+ and Pb2+ from Aqueous Solutions
by Vahid Rahimi, Catarina Helena Pimentel, Diego Gómez-Díaz, María Sonia Freire, Massimo Lazzari and Julia González-Álvarez
C 2025, 11(1), 2; https://doi.org/10.3390/c11010002 - 29 Dec 2024
Viewed by 943
Abstract
This research explores the synthesis and application of carbon-based adsorbents derived from olive stones and almond shells as low-cost biomass precursors through carbonization at 600 °C combined with chemical activation using KOH, H3PO4, and ZnCl2 with carbon/activating agent [...] Read more.
This research explores the synthesis and application of carbon-based adsorbents derived from olive stones and almond shells as low-cost biomass precursors through carbonization at 600 °C combined with chemical activation using KOH, H3PO4, and ZnCl2 with carbon/activating agent (C/A) ratios of 1:2 and 1:4 (w/w) at 850 °C for the removal of Cu2+ and Pb2+ ions from aqueous solutions. The carbons produced were characterized using different techniques including SEM-EDX, FTIR, XRD, BET analysis, CHNS elemental analysis, and point of zero charge determination. Batch-mode adsorption experiments were carried out at adsorbent doses of 2 and 5 g L−1, initial metal concentrations of 100 and 500 mg L−1, and natural pH (around 5) with agitation at 350 rpm and 25 °C for 24 h. KOH-activated carbons, especially at a 1:4 (w/w) ratio, exhibited superior adsorption performance mainly due to their favorable surface characteristics and functionalities. Pb2+ was entirely removed (100%) at the highest initial concentration of 500 mg L−1 and an adsorbent dosage of 5 g L−1, while for Cu2+, the maximum adsorption efficiency was 86.29% at an initial concentration of 100 mg L−1 and a dosage of 2 g L−1. The results of this study will help advance knowledge in the design and optimization of adsorption processes for heavy metal removal, benefiting industries seeking green technologies to mitigate environmental pollution. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Carbon-Based Materials Applied in Water and Wastewater Treatment)
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16 pages, 2796 KiB  
Article
Photocatalytic Purification of Orange-II-Dye-Polluted Wastewater Using TiO2-Modified g-C3N4 Composite
by Bin Guo, Monir Uzzaman, Mai Furukawa, Ikki Tateishi, Hideyuki Katsumata and Satoshi Kaneco
C 2024, 10(4), 103; https://doi.org/10.3390/c10040103 - 5 Dec 2024
Viewed by 967
Abstract
Textile dyes are considered to be one of the major sources of water pollution due to their complex chemical structures. Photocatalytic dye degradation is an eco-friendly method that uses light-activated catalysts to break down complex dye molecules in wastewater into harmless byproducts. In [...] Read more.
Textile dyes are considered to be one of the major sources of water pollution due to their complex chemical structures. Photocatalytic dye degradation is an eco-friendly method that uses light-activated catalysts to break down complex dye molecules in wastewater into harmless byproducts. In the present study, pure and N-doped g-C3N4 were synthesized using one-pot calcination. The fabrication of g-C3N4/TiO2 and TC-g-C3N4/TiO2 was accomplished by physical mixing. The prepared photocatalysts were used to treat the Orange-II-polluted wastewater. The structural properties, surface morphology, light-harvesting capability, and electrochemical properties were assessed using XRD, XPS, SEM, TEM, BET, DRS, PL, EIS, Mott–Schottky, and transient photocurrent response (TPCR) analyses. The improved charge separation and migration properties of g-C3N4/TiO2 were confirmed by the PL, EIS, and TPCR results. TEM and XPS data confirmed the formation of a g-C3N4/TiO2 composite. Enhanced photocatalytic decolorization was achieved for g-C3N4/TiO2 compared with pure g-C3N4 or TiO2. The 1 wt% g-C3N4/TiO2 composite exhibited the highest (92.1%) decolorization efficiency during 60 min of UV irradiation. Furthermore, the pseudo-first-order reaction rate constant (k) of 1 wt% g-C3N4/TiO2 was calculated to be 0.0213 min−1, which was 2.5 times better than that obtained with bare TiO2. Finally, for a better understanding of the g-C3N4/TiO2 decolorization process, a possible reaction mechanism was proposed. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Carbon-Based Materials Applied in Water and Wastewater Treatment)
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14 pages, 7922 KiB  
Article
Synthesis of Ni@SiC/CNFs Composite and Its Microwave-Induced Catalytic Activity
by Haibo Ouyang, Jiaqi Liu, Cuiyan Li, Leer Bao, Tianzhan Shen and Yanlei Li
C 2024, 10(3), 72; https://doi.org/10.3390/c10030072 - 9 Aug 2024
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1726
Abstract
Carbon nanomaterials are promising microwave catalytic materials due to their abundant inhomogeneous interfaces capable of producing ideal interfacial polarization and multiple relaxation, which are favorable for microwave attenuation and dissipation. However, the microwave absorption performance of carbon materials is not ideal in practical [...] Read more.
Carbon nanomaterials are promising microwave catalytic materials due to their abundant inhomogeneous interfaces capable of producing ideal interfacial polarization and multiple relaxation, which are favorable for microwave attenuation and dissipation. However, the microwave absorption performance of carbon materials is not ideal in practical applications due to poor impedance matching and single dielectric loss. To solve this problem, a ternary system of “carbon-magnetic” Ni@SiC/CNFs (C/Ni, C/SiC) composites was synthesized by electrostatic spinning, and they efficiently degraded methylene blue under microwave radiation. The results imply that the catalyst Ni@SiC/CNFs with a double-shell structure gave a 99.99% removal rate in 90 s for the degradation of methylene blue under microwave irradiation, outperforming the C/Ni and C/SiC and most other reported catalysts in similar studies. On the one hand, the possible mechanism of the methylene blue degradation should be ascribed to the fact that the double-shell structure increases the polarization source of the material, resulting in excellent microwave absorption properties; and on the other, the in situ generation of ·OH and O2− active species under microwave radiation and the synergistic coupling effect of metal plasma greatly improved the degradation efficiency of methylene blue. The findings of this study could provide a valuable reference for the green degradation of industrial dye wastewater and its sustainable development process. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Carbon-Based Materials Applied in Water and Wastewater Treatment)
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15 pages, 2536 KiB  
Article
Enhanced Adsorption of Arsenate from Contaminated Waters by Magnesium-, Zinc- or Calcium-Modified Biochar—Modeling and Mechanisms
by Despina Vamvuka, Elena Sdoukou, Antonios Stratakis and Despina Pentari
C 2024, 10(3), 61; https://doi.org/10.3390/c10030061 - 10 Jul 2024
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1771
Abstract
The adsorption of arsenate from wastewaters was investigated by applying Mg-, Zn- or Ca-modified nut residue biochar activated by nitrogen/steam. The parameters studied were the contact time, adsorbent dose, initial arsenate concentration and solution pH. The adsorption mechanism was investigated. Various analyses of [...] Read more.
The adsorption of arsenate from wastewaters was investigated by applying Mg-, Zn- or Ca-modified nut residue biochar activated by nitrogen/steam. The parameters studied were the contact time, adsorbent dose, initial arsenate concentration and solution pH. The adsorption mechanism was investigated. Various analyses of the material before and after arsenate adsorption were carried out, and experimental data were simulated by applying two isotherm models. The results indicated that the maximum removal efficiency of arsenate was 29.4% at an initial concentration of 10 mg/L. The modification of biochar by Mg, Zn or Ca oxides increased the removal rate significantly, from 49.4% at 100 mg/L As5+ up to 8%, 97% and 97%, respectively. Zn-modified biochar presented an excellent performance for both low and high As5+ concentrations. All experimental data were accurately fitted by the Freundlich isotherm model (R2 = 0.94–0.97), confirming a multilayer adsorption mechanism. For a biochar dose of 2 g/L, the maximum capacity of adsorption was enhanced after Mg-, Zn- or Ca-modification from 12.4 mg/g to 35 mg/g, 50 mg/g and 49 mg/g, respectively. The potential mechanisms of adsorption were ligand exchange, chemical complexation, surface precipitation and electron coordination. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Carbon-Based Materials Applied in Water and Wastewater Treatment)
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16 pages, 5137 KiB  
Article
Highly Porous Cellulose-Based Carbon Fibers as Effective Adsorbents for Chlorpyrifos Removal: Insights and Applications
by Tamara Tasić, Vedran Milanković, Christoph Unterweger, Christian Fürst, Stefan Breitenbach, Igor A. Pašti and Tamara Lazarević-Pašti
C 2024, 10(3), 58; https://doi.org/10.3390/c10030058 - 27 Jun 2024
Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2054
Abstract
The extensive utilization of the organophosphate pesticide chlorpyrifos, combined with its acute neurotoxicity, necessitates the development of effective strategies for its environmental removal. While numerous methods have been explored for chlorpyrifos removal from water, adsorption is the most promising. We investigated the potential [...] Read more.
The extensive utilization of the organophosphate pesticide chlorpyrifos, combined with its acute neurotoxicity, necessitates the development of effective strategies for its environmental removal. While numerous methods have been explored for chlorpyrifos removal from water, adsorption is the most promising. We investigated the potential of two cellulose-derived porous carbons as adsorbents for chlorpyrifos removal from water, prepared by either CO2 or H2O activation, resulting in similar morphologies and porosities but different amounts of heteroatom functionalities. The kinetics of batch adsorption removal from water fits well with the pseudo-first-order and pseudo-second-order kinetic models for both materials. The Freundlich, Langmuir, Dubinin–Radushkevich, and Sips isotherm models described the process of chlorpyrifos adsorption very well in all investigated cases. The maximum adsorption capacity determined from the Sips isotherm model gave values of 80.8 ± 0.1 mg g−1 and 132 ± 3 mg g−1 for the H2O and CO2 activated samples, respectively, reflecting the samples’ differences in heteroatom functionalities. Additionally, the application of either adsorbent led to reduced toxicity levels in all tested samples, implying that no harmful by-products were generated during adsorption. Comparative analysis with the existing literature further validates the study’s findings, suggesting the efficacy and applicability of cellulose-based porous carbons for sustainable chlorpyrifos remediation. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Carbon-Based Materials Applied in Water and Wastewater Treatment)
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Review

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25 pages, 2092 KiB  
Review
Advanced Graphene-Based Technologies for Antibiotic Removal from Wastewater: A Review (2016–2024)
by Joydip Sengupta and Chaudhery Mustansar Hussain
C 2024, 10(4), 92; https://doi.org/10.3390/c10040092 - 15 Oct 2024
Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2291
Abstract
The increasing presence of antibiotics in wastewater poses significant environmental risks, including the promotion of antibiotic resistance and harm to aquatic ecosystems. This study reviews advancements in graphene-based technologies for removing antibiotics from wastewater between 2016 and 2024. Graphene-based platforms, such as graphene [...] Read more.
The increasing presence of antibiotics in wastewater poses significant environmental risks, including the promotion of antibiotic resistance and harm to aquatic ecosystems. This study reviews advancements in graphene-based technologies for removing antibiotics from wastewater between 2016 and 2024. Graphene-based platforms, such as graphene oxide (GO), reduced graphene oxide (rGO), and graphene composites, have shown great promise in this field because of their exceptional adsorption capacities and rapid photocatalytic degradation capabilities. Functionalized graphene materials and graphene integrated with other substances, such as metal oxides and polymers, have enhanced performance in terms of antibiotic removal through mechanisms such as adsorption and photocatalysis. These technologies have been evaluated under various conditions, such as pH and temperature, demonstrating their practical applicability. Despite challenges related to scalability, cost-effectiveness, and environmental impact, the advancements in graphene-based technologies during this period highlight their significant potential for effective antibiotic removal, paving the way for safer and more sustainable environmental management practices. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Carbon-Based Materials Applied in Water and Wastewater Treatment)
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45 pages, 12156 KiB  
Review
Research Progress in Graphene-Based Adsorbents for Wastewater Treatment: Preparation, Adsorption Properties and Mechanisms for Inorganic and Organic Pollutants
by Guangqian Li, Ruiling Du, Zhanfang Cao, Changxin Li, Jianrong Xue, Xin Ma and Shuai Wang
C 2024, 10(3), 78; https://doi.org/10.3390/c10030078 - 29 Aug 2024
Cited by 10 | Viewed by 5510
Abstract
Graphene-based adsorbents show great potential for application in the field of environmental pollution treatment due to their unique two-dimensional structure, high specific surface area, and tunable surface chemistry. This paper reviews the research on the application of graphene and its derivatives as novel [...] Read more.
Graphene-based adsorbents show great potential for application in the field of environmental pollution treatment due to their unique two-dimensional structure, high specific surface area, and tunable surface chemistry. This paper reviews the research on the application of graphene and its derivatives as novel adsorbents in the field of wastewater treatment in recent years, focusing on the preparation and functionalization of graphene-based adsorbents, as well as their adsorption performance and mechanism of action in the removal of inorganic and organic pollutants, and provides an outlook on the future directions of the research on graphene-based adsorbents. The analysis in this paper focuses on the functionalization of graphene-based adsorbents by introducing magnetic particles, hybridization with other materials, and grafting with polymers. The modified graphene-based adsorbents showed significant adsorption and removal of pollutants and were easy to recycle and regenerate. The adsorption of pollutants on graphene-based adsorbents is mainly carried out through π–π interaction, hydrogen bonding, and electrostatic interaction, which is related to the structure of the pollutants. Future research directions on graphene-based adsorbents should focus on in-depth adsorption mechanism studies and the development of cost-effective graphene-based adsorbents for wastewater treatment. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Carbon-Based Materials Applied in Water and Wastewater Treatment)
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