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Carbon-Neutral Pathways for Urban Building Design

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A special issue of Buildings (ISSN 2075-5309). This special issue belongs to the section "Building Energy, Physics, Environment, and Systems".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: 31 May 2026 | Viewed by 4583

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Special Issue Editors

Dr. Qinfeng Zhao

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Guest Editor

The Center for Balance Architecture, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310028, China
Interests: construction industry; carbon neutrality; low-carbon design; urban buildings; household energy-use; whole life cycle; circular building

Dr. Weilun Chen

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Guest Editor

School of International Education, Jilin Jianzhu University, Changchun 130118, China
Interests: water-energy; green building; rainwater harvesting; water management; climate change; urban waterlogging; urban microclimate

Dr. Xueyuan Zhao

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Guest Editor

The College of Urban Construction, Zhejiang Shuren University, Hangzhou 310015, China
Interests: building energy efficiency; building energy management system; data-driven load forecasting; building-integrated photovoltaics; building flexible loads; integration of building energy use and storage; thermodynamic simulation

Dr. Tian Wang

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Guest Editor

Faculty of Environmental Engineering, The University of Kitakyushu, Kitakyushu 8080135, Japan
Interests: household energy-use; low-carbon operation; family characteristics; carbon pathways; sustainable design; urban infrastructure; carbon cycle

Prof. Dr. Xindong Wei

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Guest Editor

School of International Education, Jilin Jianzhu University, Changchun 130118, China
Interests: low-carbon buildings; green buildings; environment engineering; distributed energy system; hydromechanics

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

Urban buildings stand as both a core source of carbon emissions and a key carrier of human settlements, and thus the sustainable development of the building sector has become a core issue. Guided by the carbon neutrality objective, the buildings sector faces pressing practical challenges: insufficient integration of advanced technologies, weak adaptability in low-carbon retrofits, inadequate precision in operational carbon management, and limited environmental resilience. To resolve these issues, there is an urgent requirement to systematically build a carbon neutrality pathway from a whole lifecycle perspective, which includes construction, operation and maintenance, and renovation and demolition. As the logical starting point and critical cornerstone of this endeavor, buildings design fosters synergy between buildings, urban energy networks, regional climates and ecological cycles to support cities’ carbon neutrality. Advancing design practice-research alignment for carbon neutrality further guides the building sector’s green transformation and holds practical value for sustainable urban development.

We sincerely invite you to contribute to the special issue Carbon-Neutral Pathways for Urban Building Design. This issue aims to systematically synthesize cutting-edge research in the field, focusing on core priorities such as carbon reduction at the design source and collaborative carbon mitigation across the whole lifecycle. It will highlight practical themes in sustainable urban renewal, including building retrofitting and upgrading, flexible energy regulation, resource recycling, and climate change adaptation. Additionally, it will address frontier trends such as renewable energy and energy storage integration, the recycling of C&D Waste, urban water-energy relationships, and responses to regional ecological cycles.

We warmly welcome submissions of original research papers, case studies, and systematic reviews in related areas. The scope of research may include, but is not limited to:

Design strategies for building whole life cycles under the guidance of carbon-neutral pathways
Low-carbon renewal, renovation and performance enhancement technologies for urban existing buildings
Collaborative design of building energy systems for flexible operation and maintenance and energy storage integration
Collaborative design of water-energy systems in low-carbon buildings for urban ecological cycle regulation
Carbon-neutral potential assessment of circular buildings oriented by C&D Waste recycling
Carbon reduction strategies for building water systems and resilient building design

Dr. Qinfeng Zhao
Dr. Weilun Chen
Dr. Xueyuan Zhao
Dr. Tian Wang
Prof. Dr. Xindong Wei
Guest Editors

Manuscript Submission Information

Manuscripts should be submitted online at www.mdpi.com by registering and logging in to this website. Once you are registered, click here to go to the submission form. Manuscripts can be submitted until the deadline. All submissions that pass pre-check are peer-reviewed. Accepted papers will be published continuously in the journal (as soon as accepted) and will be listed together on the special issue website. Research articles, review articles as well as short communications are invited. For planned papers, a title and short abstract (about 250 words) can be sent to the Editorial Office for assessment.

Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a single-blind peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. Buildings is an international peer-reviewed open access semimonthly journal published by MDPI.

Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. The Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal is 2600 CHF (Swiss Francs). Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.

Keywords

urban buildings
carbon neutrality
low-carbon design
whole life cycle
building design
water-energy
building energy systems
circular buildings

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Published Papers (9 papers)

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Research

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20 pages, 1688 KB

Open AccessArticle

Climate-Dependent Performance of Natural Ventilation Under Continuous 24-h Mechanical Ventilation in Residential Buildings

by Yufan Ren, Xiangru Kong and Weijun Gao

Buildings 2026, 16(8), 1545; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings16081545 - 14 Apr 2026

Viewed by 295

Abstract

Natural ventilation is widely regarded as an energy-saving strategy in buildings; however, under continuous mechanical ventilation in Japanese residential buildings, its performance remains insufficiently understood. This study evaluates the performance of different natural ventilation strategies for a typical two-story detached house across eight climate zones in Japan using dynamic building energy simulation. Four ventilation strategies are examined, including baseline mechanical ventilation (S0), shoulder-season natural ventilation (S1), summer night ventilation (S2), and an adaptive natural ventilation strategy with humidity constraints (S3). Annual HVAC loads, monthly variations, and the structure of cooling loads are analyzed. Results show that shoulder-season natural ventilation (S1) does not lead to energy savings and may result in a slight increase in annual HVAC loads in most climate zones. In contrast, summer night ventilation (S2) reduces annual HVAC loads by approximately 8–10% in transitional climates (CZ3–CZ5), while its effect is weaker in hot and humid regions. The adaptive strategy (S3) achieves moderate reductions of up to about 2–3% and significantly decreases the proportion of latent cooling loads. Overall, the effectiveness of natural ventilation is governed by the trade-off between sensible load reduction and latent load increase and is strongly climate-dependent. These findings provide a basis for optimizing hybrid ventilation strategies under continuous mechanical ventilation conditions. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Carbon-Neutral Pathways for Urban Building Design)

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22 pages, 2387 KB

Open AccessArticle

How Does the Built Environment Shape Low-Carbon Consumption in an Energy-Based City? A GIS–SEM Study of Ordos, China

by Siyuan Liu, Bart Julien Dewancker, Weijun Gao, Zehang Li, Tianyang Zhang, Xin Bao and Yu Ren

Buildings 2026, 16(6), 1142; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings16061142 - 13 Mar 2026

Viewed by 616

Abstract

Energy-based cities often develop resource-dependent spatial structures that reinforce carbon-intensive daily routines, yet the mechanisms linking neighborhood form to low-carbon consumption remain unclear. This study investigates the core urban area of Ordos, China, by integrating geographic information system (GIS)-derived 5D built-environment indicators with questionnaire data from 825 residents and estimating a structural equation model (SEM) with bootstrap mediation tests. The results show clear dimension-specific effects. Density, land-use mix, and street connectivity have significant positive total effects on low-carbon consumption behavior and retain significant direct effects after the mediators are introduced, indicating partial mediation. By contrast, distance to transit and shopping accessibility operate mainly through the perceived built environment and psychological factors, with non-significant residual direct effects, indicating full mediation. Psychological factors show the strongest direct association with behavior (β = 0.545, p < 0.001), and the perceived built environment also exerts an indirect effect through psychological factors. Overall, the findings indicate that low-carbon transition in energy-based cities depends not only on spatial upgrading, but also on neighborhood environments that enhance perceived convenience and behavioral readiness. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Carbon-Neutral Pathways for Urban Building Design)

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26 pages, 4460 KB

Open AccessArticle

by Yunhao Li, Keming Hou, Mingli Lu, Peiping Gao, Hongxia Yu, Zhe Kong, Xinyu Shi and Qichao Ban

Buildings 2026, 16(5), 947; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings16050947 - 27 Feb 2026

Viewed by 337

Abstract

In research related to cognitive performance, temperature is often regarded as a core influencing factor and has received significant attention. However, as a key component of the building thermal environment, solar radiation and its mechanism of action on cognitive performance have rarely been studied. This paper conducts a laboratory study, using an infrared radiation heater to simulate the thermal effect of solar radiation, and explores the age-related differences between the elderly and the young in thermal comfort, electroencephalogram (EEG) activity, and cognitive ability under three radiation intensities (0 W, 500 W, and 1000 W). The results show that age has a relatively small impact on subjective thermal responses but a significant impact on mental state and cognitive performance. In the infrared radiation environment, the alertness (ALV score) of the elderly remains more stable, while young people show an increased sense of drowsiness. EEG analysis indicates that the frontal lobe logarithmic power of both groups of subjects is 4.55–6.79% higher than the average of other brain regions. High radiation (1000 W) inhibits the EEG activity of young people but triggers compensatory activation in the elderly, thus reducing age-related neural differences. Cognitive tests show that compared with the non-radiation condition, high infrared radiation (1000 W) significantly improves the cognitive levels of the elderly in terms of attention (CPT: +1.53%), response ability (DLT: +0.78%) and visual search ability (VST: +2.04%), while these abilities decline in young people (CPT: −2.78%, DLT: −1.21%, VST: −3.82%). The correlation analysis between EEG and cognitive tests identifies that the right frontal electrodes (F4, F8) and the occipital O1 may be potential candidate electrodes for evaluating the cognitive performance of the elderly and young people. This study provides crucial objective physiological evidence for clarifying the relationship between heat sources such as the thermal effect of solar radiation, which “acts directly on the human body”, and human thermal comfort and cognitive performance. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Carbon-Neutral Pathways for Urban Building Design)

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23 pages, 5086 KB

Open AccessArticle

Research on Thermal Performance and Structural Optimization of Finned Shell-and-Tube Storage Units for Air-Source Heat Pump Systems

by Meng Wang, Tianyang Zhang, Wenhe Zhou and Yongli Wang

Buildings 2026, 16(5), 909; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings16050909 - 25 Feb 2026

Viewed by 516

Abstract

Thermal storage tanks offer significant potential for addressing the performance degradation and supply–demand mismatch of air-source heat pump (ASHP) systems in cold regions. This study employs a combined numerical and experimental approach to systematically investigate the impacts of fin structure, composite phase change material (CPCM) composition, and inlet temperature on the performance of shell-and-tube storage units. Results indicate that natural convection is the dominant heat transfer mechanism, and the incorporation of expanded graphite (EG) substantially enhances the thermal conductivity of the PCM. A critical finding is the identification of an optimal finning coefficient range (4.16 to 5.68) that maximizes enhancement performance. A validated numerical model (error < 5%) and a predictive formula for melting time were developed. Experimental data show that the optimized finned structure reduces PCM melting time by 47% to 59%. This research provides theoretical and practical tools for designing high-efficiency thermal storage, supporting the development of flexible and integrated building energy systems. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Carbon-Neutral Pathways for Urban Building Design)

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21 pages, 9607 KB

Open AccessArticle

Simulation and Exploration of Offshore Building Forms for Effective Wind Induction Under Multi-Directional Wind Loads

by Chanxiao Wang, Hongxiang Li, Yinuo Lin, Xueli Jiang and Congbao Xu

Buildings 2026, 16(3), 575; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings16030575 - 29 Jan 2026

Viewed by 357

Abstract

In deep-sea environments characterized by global climate change and frequent typhoons, the long-term structural stability of offshore buildings depends on the adaptability of their morphology to complex, multi-directional wind loads. Current offshore engineering predominantly emphasizes passive structural resistance, with a notable lack of research on proactive wind-diversion strategies from a morphological design perspective. Utilizing the PHOENICS-FLAIR platform and the Chen–Kim k-ε turbulence model, this study conducted numerical simulations across eight typical wind direction scenarios. The independence of the medium-mesh scheme was verified through Grid Convergence Index (GCI) analysis, and the high reliability of the numerical model was validated against the AIJ Case A wind tunnel experiments. Quantitative results demonstrate that, compared to the benchmark rectangular prism, the optimized composite polyhedral form featuring “curved sloped facades” performs superiorly under multi-directional conditions: the maximum positive wind pressure is reduced by up to 50%, and the total surface wind pressure differential decreases by 62–65%. This research proves that a polyhedral continuous envelope configuration can achieve balanced aerodynamic performance across all wind directions, providing a feasible direction for the design strategy of offshore buildings to shift from “passive resistance” to “proactive diversion”. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Carbon-Neutral Pathways for Urban Building Design)

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21 pages, 2749 KB

Open AccessArticle

Optimization of Microchannel Heat Sink with Concave Compound Triangular Prism

by Taiguan Song, Jingang Yang, Zhili Su, Maimaitijiang Bairna and Jiatong Zhang

Buildings 2026, 16(2), 376; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings16020376 - 16 Jan 2026

Viewed by 520

Abstract

To address the thermal management challenges of high-heat-flux electronic devices, this study investigates heat transfer enhancement in microchannels with composite cavity-rib triangular prism structures through numerical simulations. Three cavity configurations (arc-shaped, rectangular, and trapezoidal) with depths ranging from 0.2 to 0.35 mm were analyzed. The results reveal that increasing the cavity depth elevated the friction resistance, with the trapezoidal cavities exhibiting the highest increase in friction resistance at Re > 550. The heat transfer performance exhibited a nonlinear improvement with depth: arc-shaped cavities (D = 0.35 mm) achieved maximum Nusselt numbers at low Reynolds numbers, whereas trapezoidal cavities excelled at high Reynolds numbers. The thermal-hydraulic performance evaluation criterion (PEC) identified the arc-shaped cavity (D = 0.35 mm) as optimal, achieving a maximum PEC value of 1.7495, which surpassed the rectangular and trapezoidal configurations by 4.3% and 0.7%, respectively. This study demonstrates that composite cavity-rib structures enhance secondary flow disturbances, providing critical insights for cross-scale parameter optimization in microchannel design. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Carbon-Neutral Pathways for Urban Building Design)

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24 pages, 4812 KB

Open AccessArticle

Sustainable Value Assessment of Textile Industrial Heritage Along the Longhai Railway (Guanzhong Section) from a Linear Heritage Perspective

by Panpan Liu, Yi Liu, Yuxin Zhang, Xingchen Lai and Hiroatsu Fukuda

Buildings 2026, 16(2), 281; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings16020281 - 9 Jan 2026

Viewed by 617

Abstract

The adaptive reuse of industrial heritage is increasingly recognized as an effective low-carbon strategy that reduces resource consumption, lowers embodied carbon emissions, and supports sustainable urban transitions. Developing appropriate reuse strategies, however, requires a robust understanding of heritage value. As material evidence of China’s modern industrialization, railway-associated industrial heritage possesses the characteristics of linear cultural heritage. Yet systematic and multi-scalar value assessments from a linear heritage perspective remain limited. Focusing on the Guanzhong Section of the Longhai Railway—one of the most representative industrial development axes in Northwest China—this study establishes a two-level value assessment framework and conducts a comprehensive evaluation of fourteen textile industrial heritage units. At the individual level, five dimensions—historical significance, architectural features, structural integrity, authenticity, and rarity—were assessed through field investigation, and type-specific weights were introduced to correct structural imbalances between quantity and value across building categories. At the unit level, the Analytic Hierarchy Process (AHP) was employed to determine the weights of spatial–functional integrity, process completeness, railway connectivity, industrial landscape characteristics, and the integrated individual-level value. The results show that factory workshops and warehouses consistently exhibit the highest value, whereas structures and residential buildings, despite their numerical dominance, contribute relatively little. Spatially, a clear west–east gradient emerges: high-value units cluster in Baoji and Xi’an, medium-value units in Xianyang, and low-value units mainly in Weinan and surrounding counties. The findings indicate that textile industrial heritage along the Guanzhong Section forms a railway-linked linear cultural heritage system rather than isolated sites. The proposed evaluation framework not only supports heritage identification and conservation planning but also provides a theoretical basis for promoting low-carbon adaptive reuse of existing industrial buildings. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Carbon-Neutral Pathways for Urban Building Design)

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Review

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28 pages, 1331 KB

Open AccessReview

Energy Retrofit in Historic Buildings: Problems, Strategies, and an Evaluation Framework

by Hao Huang, Jianfei Dong, Sheng Huang and Yunlong Jin

Buildings 2026, 16(10), 1939; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings16101939 - 13 May 2026

Abstract

Efforts to improve the energy performance of historic buildings have attracted growing attention from both policymakers and researchers over the past few decades. Based on 318 publications from the Web of Science database, this study conducts a review analysis in the field of historic building energy retrofit. Bibliometric analysis shows a remarkably increasing trend in research on this topic since 2015 and reveals a research imbalance between developed regions (e.g., Europe) and developing regions. This review examines the retrofit approaches of historic buildings using both passive and active strategies and synthesizes the understanding of life cycle assessment carbon emissions across different systaem boundaries, emission stages, and carbon accounting approaches. The results show that previous studies tend to focus primarily on energy performance, yet predominantly rely on simulation studies of individual cases, limiting cross-regional comparisons and the broader transferability of findings. Therefore, a multi-objective evaluation framework is proposed, considering thermal comfort, energy use, and carbon emissions, enabling identification of suitable retrofit measures across different contexts. By examining the problems and strategies in this field, this study highlights the substantial potential of historic building energy retrofit and provides a basis for future evaluation and decision-making. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Carbon-Neutral Pathways for Urban Building Design)

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47 pages, 2718 KB

Open AccessReview

A Systematic Review of the Scalability of Building-Integrated Photovoltaics from a Multidisciplinary Perspective

by Baitong Li, Dian Zhou, Mengyuan Zhou, Duo Xu, Qian Zhang, Yingtao Qi, Zongzhou Zhu and Yujun Yang

Buildings 2026, 16(2), 332; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings16020332 - 13 Jan 2026

Viewed by 562

Abstract

Over the past two decades, Building-Integrated Photovoltaics (BIPV) has become a core technology in the green building sector, driven by global carbon-neutrality goals and the growing demand for sustainable design. This review adopts a scalability-oriented perspective and systematically examines 82 peer-reviewed articles published between 2001 and 2025. The results indicate that existing research is dominated by studies on electrical and thermal performance, with East Asia and Europe—particularly China, Japan, and Germany—emerging as the most active regions. This dominance matters for scalability because real projects must satisfy comfort, compliance, buildability, and operation/maintenance constraints alongside energy yield; limited evidence in these dimensions increases delivery risk when transferring solutions across regions and building types. Accordingly, we interpret the observed distribution as an evidence-maturity pattern: performance gains are increasingly well characterized, whereas deployment-relevant uncertainties (e.g., boundary-condition sensitivity and validation depth) remain less consistently reported. Multidimensional integration of thermal, optical, and electrical functions is gaining momentum; however, user-centered performance dimensions remain underexplored. Simulation-based approaches still prevail, whereas large-scale empirical studies are limited. The review also reveals extensive interdisciplinary collaboration but also identifies a notable lack of architectural perspectives. Using Biblioshiny, this study maps co-authorship networks and research structures. Based on the evidence, we propose future research directions to enhance the practical scalability of BIPV, including strengthening interdisciplinary integration, expanding empirical validation, and developing product-level design strategies. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Carbon-Neutral Pathways for Urban Building Design)

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