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Biomechanics
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Biomechanics in Sport, Exercise and Performance
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Biomechanics in Sport, Exercise and Performance

A special issue of Biomechanics (ISSN 2673-7078). This special issue belongs to the section "Sports Biomechanics".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: 31 August 2025 | Viewed by 15601

Special Issue Editors

Dr. Stuart Evans

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Guest Editor
Physical Education, Sport and Movement, La Trobe University, Bundoora, VIC 3086, Australia
Interests: physical education; youth sport; kinetics; running; cycling; swimming
Dr. Kevin M. Carroll

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
Department of Sport, Exercise, Recreation, & Kinesiology, East Tennessee State University, Johnson City, TN 37614, USA
Interests: sport science; fatigue; resistance training; athlete monitoring
Dr. Ryan Worn

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
Institute of Health and Wellbeing, Federation University, Ballarat, VIC 3350, Australia
Interests: biomechanics and sports performance

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

This Special Issue seeks submissions that explore the roles that biomechanics plays in sport, exercise and performance, with a particular focus on youth sports. Efficient and effective biomechanics can help improve performance and ability in younger-aged athletes while enhancing skills via rigorous biomechanical and performance analysis techniques.

Youth sports may be defined by the age of the athletes that participate in sport. Based on this approach, youth sports have been considered as the participation in sports by individuals approximately 18 years of age or younger.

Understanding the biomechanics of youth sports is important because it can provide insights into how to improve their technique and training methods and develop new training methods that can help them perform at their best. In addition to helping young athletes improve their performance, biomechanics can also play a critical role in reducing the risk of injury. By understanding the biomechanical factors that contribute to both sports injuries and performance, such as overuse or poor technique, coaches and trainers can develop injury prevention and performance enhancement strategies that are tailored to the specific age and maturation status of the athlete.

Dr. Stuart Evans
Dr. Kevin M. Carroll
Dr. Ryan Worn
Guest Editors

Manuscript Submission Information

Manuscripts should be submitted online at www.mdpi.com by registering and logging in to this website. Once you are registered, click here to go to the submission form. Manuscripts can be submitted until the deadline. All submissions that pass pre-check are peer-reviewed. Accepted papers will be published continuously in the journal (as soon as accepted) and will be listed together on the special issue website. Research articles, review articles as well as short communications are invited. For planned papers, a title and short abstract (about 100 words) can be sent to the Editorial Office for announcement on this website.

Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a single-blind peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. Biomechanics is an international peer-reviewed open access quarterly journal published by MDPI.

Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. The Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal is 1000 CHF (Swiss Francs). Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.

Keywords

  • physical education
  • kinetics
  • kinematics
  • injury risk

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Published Papers (10 papers)

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Research

9 pages, 991 KiB  
Communication
New Hip Adductor Isometric Strength Test on Force Platform Shows Good and Acceptable Intra-Test Reliability for Peak Force Measurement
by Pablo Merino-Muñoz, Felipe Hermosilla-Palma, Nicolás Gómez-Álvarez, Jorge Pérez-Contreras, Bianca Miarka, Carlos Gomes de Oliveira, Ciro José Brito, Luciano Luporini Menegaldo, Kristof Kipp and Esteban Aedo-Muñoz
Biomechanics 2025, 5(2), 23; https://doi.org/10.3390/biomechanics5020023 - 10 Apr 2025
Viewed by 432
Abstract
Background/Objectives: Groin and hip injuries are common in sport, and muscle weakness has been identified as an intrinsic risk factor. So, analyzing the strength of the hip musculature becomes important. To date, there are no hip adductor isometric strength tests on force [...] Read more.
Background/Objectives: Groin and hip injuries are common in sport, and muscle weakness has been identified as an intrinsic risk factor. So, analyzing the strength of the hip musculature becomes important. To date, there are no hip adductor isometric strength tests on force platforms. This study aims to analyze the intra-test reliability of a hip adductor strength test using force platforms. Methods: The study sample comprised 13 male professional soccer players with an average age of 22.3 ± 3 years, body mass of 75.8 ± 5.4 kg, and height of 1.8 ± 0.1 m. Assessments were conducted on a uniaxial force platform. The variables analyzed are peak force (PF), rate of force development (RFD), and impulse. Intra-test reliability was evaluated using the coefficient of variation (CV), intraclass correlation coefficient (ICC), and Bland–Altman plots. Results: Acceptable levels of reliability were identified solely for the variable of peak force, with CV values of D = 5.7% for the dominant profile and ND = 5.4% for the non-dominant profile. Furthermore, moderate and good relative reliability were observed in peak force for the dominant (ICC = 0.706) and non-dominant (ICC = 0.819) profiles, respectively. However, the remaining time-related variables, RFD and impulse, did not achieve acceptable levels of absolute reliability (CV > 10%) and displayed poor to moderate relative reliability. Conclusions: In summary, PF during the hip adductor isometric strength test demonstrated acceptable absolute and commendable relative reliability. Conversely, the time-related variables, specifically RFD and impulse, yielded unsatisfactory absolute and relative reliability levels. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Biomechanics in Sport, Exercise and Performance)
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16 pages, 2010 KiB  
Article
Locked and Loaded: Divergent Handgrip Tests as Surrogate Measures for One-Repetition Maximal Strength
by S. Kyle Travis, Antonella V. Schwarz and Benjamin I. Burke
Biomechanics 2025, 5(1), 16; https://doi.org/10.3390/biomechanics5010016 - 7 Mar 2025
Viewed by 828
Abstract
Background/Objectives: Despite widespread use in clinical and athletic settings, validity of handgrip strength (HGS) as a surrogate for maximal strength remains debated, particularly regarding how testing posture influences its predictive value. Moreover, while HGS is frequently considered a marker of ‘total strength’, this [...] Read more.
Background/Objectives: Despite widespread use in clinical and athletic settings, validity of handgrip strength (HGS) as a surrogate for maximal strength remains debated, particularly regarding how testing posture influences its predictive value. Moreover, while HGS is frequently considered a marker of ‘total strength’, this term is often vaguely defined, lacking a clear, performance-based framework. Therefore, this study investigates HGS as a potential surrogate measure for one-repetition maximum (1RM) performances in key compound lifts via back squat (BS), bench press (BP), deadlift (DL), and total (TOT), while accounting for variations in testing posture. Methods: Two distinct testing conditions were used to account for postural influences: Experiment 1 implemented high-output standing HGS (HGSSTAND) in 22 recreationally trained males [Wilks Score: 318.51 ± 44.61 au] vs. Experiment 2, which included low-output seated HGS (HGSSIT) in 22 competitive powerlifters [409.86 ± 46.76 au], with all testing immediately followed by 1RM assessment. Results: Correlational analyses identified the strongest association between HGSSTAND and 1RM DL (r = 0.693, BF10 = 106.42), whereas HGSSIT exhibited the strongest relationship with 1RM BP (r = 0.732, BF10 = 291.32). Postural effects had a significant impact on HGS outcomes (p < 0.001, η2 = 0.413), with HGSSTAND producing higher outputs than HGSSIT despite lower absolute strength 1RM capabilities. Conclusions: These findings emphasize the role of biomechanical specificity and neuromuscular engagement in grip strength assessments, indicating that HGS can function as a practical surrogate for maximal strength, though its predictive value depends on posture. Strength practitioners, sport scientists, and clinicians should consider these confounding factors when implementing HGS-based monitoring strategies. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Biomechanics in Sport, Exercise and Performance)
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Graphical abstract

10 pages, 859 KiB  
Article
Intraindividual Effects of Take-Off Distance on Hurdling and Interval Running in Sprint Hurdles
by Keitaro Seki, Shota Kikuchi, Kunihiro Okamura, Ayata Kageyama and Giorgos Paradisis
Biomechanics 2025, 5(1), 13; https://doi.org/10.3390/biomechanics5010013 - 28 Feb 2025
Viewed by 620
Abstract
Purpose: This study explores the impact of take-off distance on hurdling and interval running kinematics in sprint hurdles, recognizing its potential to improve performance. While beginners often use shorter take-off distances, a deeper understanding could inform coaching strategies aimed at improving hurdle [...] Read more.
Purpose: This study explores the impact of take-off distance on hurdling and interval running kinematics in sprint hurdles, recognizing its potential to improve performance. While beginners often use shorter take-off distances, a deeper understanding could inform coaching strategies aimed at improving hurdle technique. Methods: Ten male elite and highly trained hurdlers ran 60 m hurdles under original, short, and long take-off distances (OTD, STD, and LTD, respectively). The sagittal plane kinematics of the fourth hurdle and interval running were obtained using two high-speed cameras at a rate of 120 frames per second. Intraindividual step parameters were compared between conditions. Results: Running speed and step frequency were significantly lower in the STD than in the OTD and LTD. Significant interactions were found for step length with a significantly longer recovery step length in the STD than in the LTD. Furthermore, the hurdling distance was significantly longer in the LTD than in the OTD. In addition, the touchdown distance was significantly shorter in the LTD and longer in the STD compared to the OTD. Therefore, an STD is associated with a shorter acceleration distance between hurdles, whereas an LTD is associated with a longer acceleration distance. Therefore, the take-off distance influenced the distance for acceleration between hurdles, and the recovery step was related to the take-off distance. Conclusions: STD has negative effects on hurdling and interval running, even among elite and highly trained hurdlers. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Biomechanics in Sport, Exercise and Performance)
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7 pages, 243 KiB  
Article
Sex-Specific Differences in Vertical Jump Force–Time Metrics in Youth Basketball Players
by Milos Petrovic, Dimitrije Cabarkapa, Jelena Aleksic, Damjana V. Cabarkapa, Jorgelina Ramos, Thrainn Hafsteinsson and Thordis Gisladottir
Biomechanics 2024, 4(4), 805-811; https://doi.org/10.3390/biomechanics4040059 - 23 Dec 2024
Viewed by 1161
Abstract
Objective: The purpose of this study was to investigate differences in countermovement jump (CMJ) force–time metrics between male and female youth basketball players. Methods: Twenty-two female and seventeen male basketball players (ages 12–16) performed CMJs on a portable force plate system (VALD Performance). [...] Read more.
Objective: The purpose of this study was to investigate differences in countermovement jump (CMJ) force–time metrics between male and female youth basketball players. Methods: Twenty-two female and seventeen male basketball players (ages 12–16) performed CMJs on a portable force plate system (VALD Performance). The data collected were analyzed for differences in force–time characteristics, specifically during the concentric and eccentric phases of the CMJ. Results: The results showed no statistically significant differences in anthropometric characteristics between the sexes. However, male athletes demonstrated better performance in several force–time metrics during the concentric phase of the CMJ, including concentric impulse, peak velocity, and mean power, ultimately leading to higher vertical jump heights. Sex-specific differences in the eccentric phase were less pronounced, though males exhibited greater relative eccentric mean power. Conclusions: The findings suggest that male players tend to display greater force and power-producing capabilities during the propulsive (concentric) phase of the CMJ. These differences highlight the importance of tailoring training programs to address specific needs, particularly focusing on enhancing concentric force and power production in female basketball players. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Biomechanics in Sport, Exercise and Performance)
15 pages, 4777 KiB  
Article
The Relationship Between Foot Anthropometrics, Lower-Extremity Kinematics, and Ground Reaction Force in Elite Female Basketball Players: An Exploratory Study Investigating Arch Height Index and Navicular Drop
by Catherine I. Cairns, Douglas W. Van Citters and Ryan M. Chapman
Biomechanics 2024, 4(4), 750-764; https://doi.org/10.3390/biomechanics4040055 - 1 Dec 2024
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1726
Abstract
Static and dynamic foot function can be evaluated using easy-to-implement, low-cost measurements like arch height index (AHI) and navicular drop (ND). Connections between AHI/ND and lower-extremity kinematics/kinetics have largely focused on gait. Some studies exist evaluating basketball players; however, these predominantly focus on [...] Read more.
Static and dynamic foot function can be evaluated using easy-to-implement, low-cost measurements like arch height index (AHI) and navicular drop (ND). Connections between AHI/ND and lower-extremity kinematics/kinetics have largely focused on gait. Some studies exist evaluating basketball players; however, these predominantly focus on men. To our knowledge, few studies evaluate female athletes, and none have investigated connections between AHI/ND and lower-extremity biomechanics in elite female basketball players. Thus, we conducted an IRB-approved observational investigation of 10 female, National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) Division 1 basketball players, evaluating connections between AHI/ND and lower-extremity biomechanics during basketball activities. Participants completed one visit wherein bilateral AHI/ND measurements and kinematics/kinetics were captured via optical motion capture and force-instrumented treadmill during basketball activities (walking, running, vertical/horizontal jumping, side shuffles, 45° cuts). No connections existed between the AHI and any variable during any task. Contrastingly, ND was statistically significantly correlated with medial/lateral force maximum and range during left cutting. This implies that individuals with stiffer feet produced more side-to-side force than those with more foot mobility during cutting. This is the first report connecting ND to lower-extremity biomechanics in elite, female basketball players. This could inform novel interventions and technologies to improve frontal kinematics/kinetics. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Biomechanics in Sport, Exercise and Performance)
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12 pages, 17346 KiB  
Article
Do Elite Female Judokas Show Asymmetry in the Internal and External Rotators of the Shoulder? A One-Dimensional and Principal Component Approach
by Esteban Aedo-Muñoz, Pablo Merino Muñoz, Luciano Bernardes Leite, Pedro Forte, Bianca Miarka, Matias Gonzalez Valenzuela, Cristian Hernandez-Wimmer, David Arriagada-Tarifeño and Ciro José Brito
Biomechanics 2024, 4(4), 738-749; https://doi.org/10.3390/biomechanics4040054 - 1 Dec 2024
Viewed by 1000
Abstract
Background/Aims: Asymmetry of the internal (IR) and external (ER) shoulder rotators can increase the risk of injuries in judokas. Discrete analyses are usually performed in time series data, but they can have biases by removing trends, so other approaches have been proposed to [...] Read more.
Background/Aims: Asymmetry of the internal (IR) and external (ER) shoulder rotators can increase the risk of injuries in judokas. Discrete analyses are usually performed in time series data, but they can have biases by removing trends, so other approaches have been proposed to avoid these biases such as statistical parametric mapping (SPM) and principal component analysis (PCA). This study analyzed the asymmetry in the shoulder rotators in female judokas, comparing dominant (D) vs. non-dominant (ND) upper limbs. Methods: For this, 11 elite athletes (age: 20.1 ± 2.9 yrs.; experience: 4.0 ± 0.5 yrs.; body mass: 66.0 ± 14.6 kg; height: 1.6 ± 0.1 m; BMI: 24.8 ± 4.3 kg/m2), were evaluated in an isokinetic dynamometer (Cybex® Humac/Norm Dynamometer CSMI, 502140, Stoughton, MA, USA). All participants performed the concentric (CON/CON) isokinetic evaluations of internal and external rotation of the shoulder in 60°/s and 180°/s angular velocities. Results: There was no significative asymmetry between IR vs. ER at 60°/s; similar results were observed at 180°/s when analyzed by PCA or SPM methods (p > 0.05 for all comparison). There was no difference between peak torque at 60°/s or 180°/s (p > 0.05 for all comparison). Conclusions: no asymmetry was observed in IR and ER in elite female athletes, regardless of the analysis method. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Biomechanics in Sport, Exercise and Performance)
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9 pages, 701 KiB  
Article
The Relationship Between Horizontal Jumping and Sprinting Ability Across Sexes in Young Active Adults
by Adam Kleeberger, Dana Agar-Newman, Ming-Chang Tsai and Marc Klimstra
Biomechanics 2024, 4(4), 711-719; https://doi.org/10.3390/biomechanics4040051 - 14 Nov 2024
Viewed by 1484
Abstract
Purpose: The purpose of this research was to investigate the relationship between horizontal jump distance, 10 m time, and 30–40 m time in multi-sport athletes separated by sex and sprint speed. Methods: A total of 1352 athletes (742 males and 610 females) performed [...] Read more.
Purpose: The purpose of this research was to investigate the relationship between horizontal jump distance, 10 m time, and 30–40 m time in multi-sport athletes separated by sex and sprint speed. Methods: A total of 1352 athletes (742 males and 610 females) performed 40 m sprints, standing broad jumps (SBJs), and standing triple jumps (STJs). Data were separated by sex and then grouped as fast, average, and slow using the K-Means algorithm in three conditions (acceleration, max speed, and combined). Results: Regression models explained 84.01% of the variance (F(7,757) = 574.5, p < 0.001) for the 10 m times with mass, speed group, and sex as significant predictors and 88.51% of the variance (F = (7,757 = 841.6, p < 0.001) for the 30–40 m times with SBJ, STJ, speed group, sex, and the interaction of sex and group as significant predictors. Conclusions: These results suggest that when examining general athlete physical performance, horizontal jump tests and max speed sprint times can be used equivalently to stratify athletes. However, it is important to group athletes by speed and sex before being able to predict sprint ability from horizontal jump tests. Further, athlete mass is a significant factor in the prediction of acceleration ability but not maximum speed, and horizontal jumps were significant factors in the prediction of max speed but not acceleration. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Biomechanics in Sport, Exercise and Performance)
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13 pages, 3239 KiB  
Article
Morphological and Performance Biomechanics Profiles of Draft Preparation American-Style Football Players
by Monique Mokha, Maria Berrocales, Aidan Rohman, Andrew Schafer, Jack Stensland, Joseph Petruzzelli, Ahmad Nasri, Talia Thompson, Easa Taha and Pete Bommarito
Biomechanics 2024, 4(4), 685-697; https://doi.org/10.3390/biomechanics4040049 - 10 Nov 2024
Viewed by 1462
Abstract
Background/Objectives: Using advanced methodologies may enhance athlete profiling. This study profiled morphological and laboratory-derived performance biomechanics by position of American-style football players training for the draft. Methods: Fifty-five players were categorized into three groups: Big (e.g., lineman; n = 17), Big–skill (e.g., tight [...] Read more.
Background/Objectives: Using advanced methodologies may enhance athlete profiling. This study profiled morphological and laboratory-derived performance biomechanics by position of American-style football players training for the draft. Methods: Fifty-five players were categorized into three groups: Big (e.g., lineman; n = 17), Big–skill (e.g., tight end; n = 11), and Skill (e.g., receiver; n = 27). Body fat (BF%), lean body mass (LBM), and total body mass were measured using a bioelectrical impedance device. Running ground reaction force (GRF) and ground contact time (GCT) were obtained using an instrumented treadmill synchronized with a motion capture system. Dual uniaxial force plates captured countermovement jump height (CMJ-JH), normalized peak power (CMJ-NPP), and reactive strength. Asymmetry was calculated for running force, GCT, and CMJ eccentric and concentric impulse (IMP). MANOVA determined between-group differences, and radar plots for morphological and performance characteristics were created using Z-scores. Results: There was a between-group difference (F(26,80) = 5.70, p < 0.001; Wilk’s Λ = 0.123, partial η2 = 0.649). Fisher’s least squares difference post hoc analyses showed that participants in the Skill group had greater JH, CMJ-NPP, reactive strength, and running GRF values versus Big players but not Big–skill players (p < 0.05). Big athletes had greater BF%, LBM, total body mass, and GCT values than Skill and Big–skill athletes (p < 0.05). Big–skill players had greater GCT asymmetry than Skill and Big players (p < 0.05). Asymmetries in running forces, CMJ eccentric, and concentric IMP were not different (p > 0.05). Morphological and performance biomechanics differences are pronounced between Skill and Big players. Big–skill players possess characteristics from both groups. Laboratory-derived metrics offer precise values of running and jumping force strategies and body composition that can aid sports science researchers and practitioners in refining draft trainee profiles. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Biomechanics in Sport, Exercise and Performance)
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8 pages, 1061 KiB  
Communication
Biomechanical Analysis of Elite Ice-Climbing Performance
by Missy A. Thompson, Dylan Blair, Morgan Shippen and Sean Toma
Biomechanics 2024, 4(3), 452-459; https://doi.org/10.3390/biomechanics4030031 - 31 Jul 2024
Viewed by 1193
Abstract
Competitive ice climbing involves ascending ice and natural rock/manmade features using specialized equipment. Despite its growing popularity, there is limited knowledge regarding the relationship between ice climbers’ biomechanics and performance. The purpose of this study was to analyze spatiotemporal variables and upper-extremity joint [...] Read more.
Competitive ice climbing involves ascending ice and natural rock/manmade features using specialized equipment. Despite its growing popularity, there is limited knowledge regarding the relationship between ice climbers’ biomechanics and performance. The purpose of this study was to analyze spatiotemporal variables and upper-extremity joint kinematics during an elite lead ice-climbing competition. A total of 24 (16 male, 8 female) competitors participated. Video data was recorded during the ice climbing competition, and biomechanical analysis software was used to measure kinematic variables (shoulder and elbow angles) and spatiotemporal (time climbing/resting and number of moves/rests) throughout a section of the competition route. Independent t-tests examined differences between the top and bottom 50% of competitors, and correlations assessed the strength of the relationship between the measured variables and competition rank. We found a strong correlation between elbow and shoulder angles at weight bearing on the ice tool, indicating that ice climbers rely on more extended arm positions, which may decrease muscle fatigue, maintain optimal muscle fiber lengths, and keep the trunk close to the wall with lower contact forces. Additionally, we found that higher-performing ice climbers moved faster with fewer moves, which is likely due to their ability to identify specific holds as affordances to guide their movement. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Biomechanics in Sport, Exercise and Performance)
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13 pages, 1202 KiB  
Article
Comparing the Effects of an Off-Ice Sprint-Change of Direction Task on Trunk Kinematics and Gait Laterality in Collegiate Ice Hockey Players
by Stuart Evans and Sam Gleadhill
Biomechanics 2024, 4(2), 296-308; https://doi.org/10.3390/biomechanics4020019 - 19 May 2024
Viewed by 4345
Abstract
Laterality preferences are intrinsic in most physical activities, and ice hockey is one domain wherein these preferences might influence performance. Biomechanical laterality between dominant and nondominant (or preferred and nonpreferred) limbs is believed to be an advantageous attribute that is linked with skilled [...] Read more.
Laterality preferences are intrinsic in most physical activities, and ice hockey is one domain wherein these preferences might influence performance. Biomechanical laterality between dominant and nondominant (or preferred and nonpreferred) limbs is believed to be an advantageous attribute that is linked with skilled performance. Yet little is known about the implications of motor asymmetries for skilled performers in dynamic, time-constrained, team-based activities in an off-ice environment. This can be extended to when player position is considered, notably for those playing in a defensive or an offensive position. In this study, fourteen semi-professional collegiate male ice hockey players (age: 21.87 ± 2.98 years; BMI: 25.26 ± 3.21 kg/m) performed a randomized repeated 15 m sprint-change of direction task. Assessments of lower limb laterality were carried out as participants commenced the 15 m sprint change of direction task in both a right and left foot rear setback position. Biomechanical laterality between right and left rear foot setback positions was inferred by an ActiGraph GTx3 triaxial accelerometer that was located on the participants’ spinous process, representing the trunk centre of mass (CoM). Overall, ANOVA results indicated significant differences across all sprint split times between the right and left foot rear setback positions, with times significantly quicker when players commenced in a right rear foot setback position (p < 0.001). ANOVA revealed significant differences in trunk CoM acceleration between in a right and left rear setback position, specifically during the initial 0–10 m sprint split, with offensive players observed to have lesser trunk anteroposterior and vertical CoM acceleration (p = 0.05) and during the final 5 m sprint split (p = 0.002, d = 0.7), despite overall smaller effect sizes seen in the left foot rear setback position. It appears that starting with the foot in a right rear setback position results in quicker 15 m performance times and concurrent lower magnitudes of trunk CoM acceleration. Although we demonstrated that offensive players were quicker and displayed less trunk CoM acceleration, we recommend that future studies use a greater number of participants for inter-limb symmetry in these movement tests. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Biomechanics in Sport, Exercise and Performance)
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