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24 pages, 1266 KB

Open AccessArticle

Letter Position Dyslexia in Fingerspelling: Similar Error Patterns in Reading Written and Fingerspelled Words

by Naama Friedmann, Neta Haluts and Doron Levy

Behav. Sci. 2026, 16(5), 654; https://doi.org/10.3390/bs16050654 - 26 Apr 2026

Viewed by 391

Abstract

Letter position dyslexia is a deficit in letter position encoding in the orthographic-visual analysis stage. We report here the first cases of deaf signers who show letter position dyslexia in both written and fingerspelled words. Their error pattern was identical in the two [...] Read more.

Letter position dyslexia is a deficit in letter position encoding in the orthographic-visual analysis stage. We report here the first cases of deaf signers who show letter position dyslexia in both written and fingerspelled words. Their error pattern was identical in the two modes of presentation, written and fingerspelled: in both modes, they had almost only within-word letter transpositions; their transpositions involved middle letters and almost never exterior letters; they had errors of doubled letters; and their errors occurred almost only in migratable words. They showed no transpositions in reading multi-digit numbers. These results indicate that despite the temporal separation between the fingerspelled letters, the reading of fingerspelling uses the same cognitive processes, and specifically, the same letter-position-encoding mechanism, as the reading of written words. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Understanding Dyslexia and Developmental Language Disorders)

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23 pages, 1099 KB

Open AccessArticle

The Interplay of Morphosyntax and Verbal and Nonverbal Short-Term Memory in Children and Adolescents with Down Syndrome

by Merve Nur Sarıyer Temelli and Selçuk Güven

Behav. Sci. 2026, 16(3), 315; https://doi.org/10.3390/bs16030315 - 25 Feb 2026

Viewed by 587

Abstract

Down syndrome (DS) is associated with persistent language impairments that extend beyond early childhood, yet evidence from agglutinative languages remains limited. While morphosyntactic weaknesses have been well-documented in Indo-European languages, less is known about how such difficulties are manifested in Turkish, a language [...] Read more.

Down syndrome (DS) is associated with persistent language impairments that extend beyond early childhood, yet evidence from agglutinative languages remains limited. While morphosyntactic weaknesses have been well-documented in Indo-European languages, less is known about how such difficulties are manifested in Turkish, a language in which grammatical relations are primarily marked through morphology. In addition, short-term memory (STM) limitations, particularly in verbal domains, are characteristic of DS and may contribute to language outcomes. This study examined the interaction between morphosyntax and STM in Turkish-speaking children and adolescents with DS. A cross-sectional observational design was employed, including 12 monolingual Turkish-speaking participants with DS (aged 6;7–15;11) and 10 TD peers matched on nonverbal mental age. Participants completed standardized assessments of syntax and morphology, spontaneous language sampling, and STM tasks assessing verbal and visual memory. Children with DS performed significantly below controls on syntactic comprehension and production as well as morphological measures, with larger effects observed for syntax. Noun morphology was less accurate than verb morphology, likely reflecting increased morphophonological complexity. Regression analyses indicated that auditory digit span predicted sentence comprehension, whereas nonword repetition predicted morphological production indexed by mean length of utterance in morphemes. Substantial inter-individual variability was observed within the DS group. These findings suggest that morphosyntactic outcomes in Turkish-speaking children with DS are closely linked to verbal STM capacities and vary considerably across individuals, underscoring the importance of integrated assessment and individualized intervention planning. Future research with larger samples is warranted to confirm and extend these preliminary findings. Findings should be interpreted cautiously due to the limited sample size and are presented as preliminary descriptive evidence. This study provides initial data on Turkish-speaking individuals with Down syndrome. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Understanding Dyslexia and Developmental Language Disorders)

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34 pages, 1422 KB

Open AccessArticle

Orthographic Learning of Inconsistent Non-Words in Good and Poor Spellers: Linking Dictation and Eye-Tracking Measures

by Julie Robidoux, Antonin Rossier-Bisaillon, Boutheina Jemel and Brigitte Stanké

Behav. Sci. 2026, 16(1), 22; https://doi.org/10.3390/bs16010022 - 22 Dec 2025

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 830

Abstract

The French writing system contains numerous phoneme-to-grapheme inconsistencies that vary in their properties and distribution across words. These inconsistencies represent a major challenge for children learning to spell, especially for poor spellers or children with dyslexia-dysorthographia. To our knowledge, no study has examined [...] Read more.

The French writing system contains numerous phoneme-to-grapheme inconsistencies that vary in their properties and distribution across words. These inconsistencies represent a major challenge for children learning to spell, especially for poor spellers or children with dyslexia-dysorthographia. To our knowledge, no study has examined how inconsistencies shape orthographic learning using both eye-movement data and dictation performance, in children with good and poor spelling skills. In this eye-tracking study, twenty French-speaking children aged 9 to 12 (good spellers: n = 10; poor spellers: n = 10) learned the spelling of six bisyllabic non-words containing an inconsistent syllable across three learning cycles while we recorded their eye movements. One week later, children completed delayed dictation and recognition tasks assessing long-term consolidation and retrieval. Both groups improved their spelling accuracy and exhibited shorter and fewer fixations across learning cycles, reflecting progressive orthographic learning. However, poor spellers fixated more often and longer on the inconsistent syllable and demonstrated weaker long-term retention, suggesting a less holistic encoding and difficulties consolidating orthographic representations over time. Future research should examine whether these learning patterns generalize to real words, classroom contexts, and to children with dyslexia-dysorthographia across broader learning conditions. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Understanding Dyslexia and Developmental Language Disorders)

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34 pages, 2428 KB

Open AccessArticle

An In-Depth Investigation of Eye Movement Profile of Dyslexic Readers Using a Standardized Text-Reading Aloud Task in French

by Antonin Rossier-Bisaillon, Julie Robidoux, Brigitte Stanké and Boutheina Jemel

Behav. Sci. 2026, 16(1), 18; https://doi.org/10.3390/bs16010018 - 21 Dec 2025

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1201

Abstract

(1) Background: Most eye-movement studies in dyslexia focus on silent reading in controlled laboratory settings. Yet, oral reading of standardized texts remains central for identifying this disorder. By combining eye-tracking with oral reading, we captured both fixation dynamics and eye–voice span (EVS) measures, [...] Read more.

(1) Background: Most eye-movement studies in dyslexia focus on silent reading in controlled laboratory settings. Yet, oral reading of standardized texts remains central for identifying this disorder. By combining eye-tracking with oral reading, we captured both fixation dynamics and eye–voice span (EVS) measures, offering a richer view of the processes underlying dyslexia. (2) Methods: We tested 10 adults with dyslexia and 14 controls as they read aloud an unpredictable diagnostic text in French. Analyses examined psycholinguistic effects of word length and lexical frequency on fixation probabilities, counts, and durations, alongside EVS measures. (3) Results: Compared to controls, adults with dyslexia read more slowly, made more errors, and showed atypical fixation patterns: persistent word length effects, reduced frequency effects, and diminished, unstable EVS. (4) Conclusions: Together, eye-movement and EVS findings converge on a key mechanism: adults with dyslexia continue to rely heavily on sublexical decoding. This reliance creates a processing bottleneck in oral reading, where difficulties in rapid word identification cascade into sounding-out behavior and disrupted eye–voice coordination. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Understanding Dyslexia and Developmental Language Disorders)

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21 pages, 381 KB

Open AccessArticle

The Relationship Between Language and Social Competence in 3- to 5-Year-Old Children at Risk of and Without Developmental Language Disorder

by Marylène Dionne and Stefano Rezzonico

Behav. Sci. 2025, 15(11), 1536; https://doi.org/10.3390/bs15111536 - 11 Nov 2025

Viewed by 3239

Abstract

Developmental language disorder (DLD) is associated with persistent language difficulties that may impact social competence. The aim of this study is to describe the relationship between language, pragmatics, and social competence in French-speaking preschoolers and to identify the specific social competence difficulties observed [...] Read more.

Developmental language disorder (DLD) is associated with persistent language difficulties that may impact social competence. The aim of this study is to describe the relationship between language, pragmatics, and social competence in French-speaking preschoolers and to identify the specific social competence difficulties observed in children at risk of DLD at this age. The sample included 63 children aged between 36 and 59 months, 12 of whom were at risk of having DLD. Children were assessed using measures of vocabulary, morphosyntax, pragmatic skills, and narrative abilities, while childcare educators completed a questionnaire evaluating social competence. Results revealed that children at risk for DLD exhibited more characteristics related to dependence on adults compared to their peers without DLD. No significant group differences were observed for the other components of social competence. The findings also identified a relationship between pragmatic and personal narrative skills, and social adjustment. These findings support the social adaptation model, suggesting that functional social impacts in children with DLD may arise from limited language abilities rather than an intrinsic socio-emotional disorder. This study highlights the importance of early pragmatic and narrative development in supporting social competence from the preschool age. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Understanding Dyslexia and Developmental Language Disorders)

24 pages, 610 KB

Open AccessArticle

Investigation of Lexical and Inflectional Verb Production and Comprehension in French-Speaking Teenagers with Developmental Language Disorders (DLDs)

by Marie Pourquié, Emilie Courteau, Ann-Sophie Duquette and Phaedra Royle

Behav. Sci. 2025, 15(9), 1252; https://doi.org/10.3390/bs15091252 - 14 Sep 2025

Viewed by 1412

Abstract

Little research has studied verb inflection and argument structure complexity effects in teenagers with developmental language disorders (DLDs). However, verb production and comprehension deficits that characterize younger children with DLD might persist over time. Seventeen French-speaking teenagers with DLD and seventeen controls (typical [...] Read more.

Little research has studied verb inflection and argument structure complexity effects in teenagers with developmental language disorders (DLDs). However, verb production and comprehension deficits that characterize younger children with DLD might persist over time. Seventeen French-speaking teenagers with DLD and seventeen controls (typical language, TL group) were tested with fLEX, an application designed to assess lexical and inflectional production and comprehension of three different verb types: intransitives, transitives and ditransitives, i.e., verbs that require none, one or two overt complements. Participants performed three tasks: action naming, sentence production and sentence comprehension involving third singular and plural present tense. Both groups performed similarly on action naming. Subject–verb agreement errors characterized participants with DLD both in sentence production and comprehension; however, verb–argument structure had no effect on any of the tasks. These results characterize verb deficits in teenagers with DLD as affecting inflectional processes rather than lexical ones: they are found in production and comprehension, persist until adolescence and are thus a target for evaluation and intervention in French-speaking teenagers. Results are discussed from a cross-linguistic perspective and in light of current theories on DLD. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Understanding Dyslexia and Developmental Language Disorders)

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16 pages, 2564 KB

Open AccessArticle

Cognitive–Linguistic Profiles of German Adults with Dyslexia

by Linda Eckert, Gesa Hartwigsen and Sabrina Turker

Behav. Sci. 2025, 15(4), 522; https://doi.org/10.3390/bs15040522 - 13 Apr 2025

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1743

Abstract

Past research has extensively explored reading in English-speaking children with dyslexia who acquire a highly irregular and opaque orthography. Far less is known about the manifestation of dyslexia in shallow, highly consistent orthographies like German, especially in adults. To shed further light on [...] Read more.

Past research has extensively explored reading in English-speaking children with dyslexia who acquire a highly irregular and opaque orthography. Far less is known about the manifestation of dyslexia in shallow, highly consistent orthographies like German, especially in adults. To shed further light on the heterogenous manifestation of dyslexia in German-speaking adults, we assessed reading and reading-related abilities, spelling, cognitive abilities, and language learning experience in 33 healthy German-speaking adults (17 females) and 33 adults with dyslexia (20 females). The four main aims were to (1) elucidate the intricate relationship between cognitive and literacy abilities, (2) investigate persisting weaknesses, (3) determine the strongest predictors of dyslexia, and (4) investigate deficit profiles. Group comparisons revealed persistent deficits in almost all measures of reading and spelling, slight deficits in verbal working memory, but no visuospatial impairments in adults with dyslexia. Moreover, adults with dyslexia had considerably lower English skills and lower educational attainment. Overall, we found fewer and weaker links between literacy and cognitive measures in adults with dyslexia, indicating a dissociation between these skills. Spelling, word reading, and phonological awareness were the best predictors of dyslexia, but the most widespread deficit was rapid automatized naming. Our findings suggest a heterogeneous manifestation of dyslexia in German-speaking adults, with even low-level deficits persisting into adulthood despite the shallow nature of the German orthographic system. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Understanding Dyslexia and Developmental Language Disorders)

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Review

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26 pages, 922 KB

Open AccessReview

A Scoping Review of the Impact of Theatre-Based Techniques in Children and Adults with Autism Spectrum Disorders

by Angelos Papadopoulos, Vasiliki Zarokanellou, Nikolaos Psylakis, Dionysios Tafiadis, Angeliki Tsapara, Nikolaos Trimmis and Panagiotis Plotas

Behav. Sci. 2026, 16(6), 890; https://doi.org/10.3390/bs16060890 - 1 Jun 2026

Viewed by 481

Abstract

(1) Background: The present scoping review sought to map the characteristics of theatre-based interventions and their reported effects on social interactions, social communication, anxiety, and broader psychosocial functioning of individuals with Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD). (2) Methods: A search was conducted in the [...] Read more.

(1) Background: The present scoping review sought to map the characteristics of theatre-based interventions and their reported effects on social interactions, social communication, anxiety, and broader psychosocial functioning of individuals with Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD). (2) Methods: A search was conducted in the Scopus, ERIC, and PubMed databases, and manually with specific terms under PRISMA guidelines and the PCC framework. Eleven studies met the inclusion criteria. (3) Results: Most of the studies were conducted in the United States over the past 15 years. The interventions were categorized according to the method used in each study. All the studies included children and adolescents as samples, with only one study including adults. The SENSE Theatre Program was the most frequently applied method. There was some heterogeneity in the duration and number of sessions applied. Improvements were observed in social cognition, behavior, interaction, social and psychological functioning, language-related areas, and the maintenance and generalization of acquired skills, with a reduction in anxiety levels. (4) Conclusions: Although the studies were limited, theatre-based interventions and dramatherapy appear to be a promising therapeutic approach that remains largely unexplored. Further research is crucial to enriching the existing literature, filling current gaps, and establishing a protocol that integrates the aforementioned interventions into clinical practices for both children and adults with ASD. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Understanding Dyslexia and Developmental Language Disorders)

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