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A special issue of Applied Sciences (ISSN 2076-3417). This special issue belongs to the section "Computing and Artificial Intelligence".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (20 February 2026) | Viewed by 15954

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Prof. Dr. Vassilis Charissis

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School of Arts and Creative Industries (SACI), Edinburgh Napier University, Edinburgh EH10 5DT, UK
Interests: HCI; VR; AR; gait analysis; emerging interaction technologies
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

Submissions are now open for a Special Issue entitled “VR in Healthcare”.

Virtual Reality (VR) and other immersive Technologies such as Augmented Reality (AR) and Mixed reality (MR) have emerged as transformative technologies with the potential to revolutionize patient care, medical training, and therapy. By immersing users in realistic, interactive simulations, VR enables medical professionals to enhance diagnosis, treatment, and surgical planning. It is also able to enhance medical education for healthcare professionals, and improve pain management, rehabilitation, and mental health treatment for patients, providing immersive environments and telemedicine options that increase inclusiveness and transcend physical limitations.

This Special Issue of Applied Sciences, entitled “Virtual Reality (VR) in Healthcare”, encompasses a wide array of thematic areas, reflecting the interdisciplinary nature of utilizing VR technology in healthcare. These technologies are not limited to VR but include all immersive technologies and their intersection with other disciplines.

In this Special Issue, we welcome submissions exploring cutting-edge research and recent advances in healthcare, and the contribution of immersive technologies (VR/AR/MR).

Both theoretical and experimental studies are welcome, as well as comprehensive reviews and survey papers. The following keywords offer an indication of the scope of this Special Issue.

Clinical applications
Medical training
Patient training and consent
Diagnosis, treatment, and rehabilitation
Pain management,
Patient/user experience and engagement
User interaction (UI) in VR healthcare
User experience (UX) for VR healthcare
Immersive technologies and AI applications in healthcare
Telemedicine and remote care
Mental health and wellbeing
Gamification
Inclusivity
Social impact

Prof. Dr. Vassilis Charissis
Guest Editor

Manuscript Submission Information

Manuscripts should be submitted online at www.mdpi.com by registering and logging in to this website. Once you are registered, click here to go to the submission form. Manuscripts can be submitted until the deadline. All submissions that pass pre-check are peer-reviewed. Accepted papers will be published continuously in the journal (as soon as accepted) and will be listed together on the special issue website. Research articles, review articles as well as short communications are invited. For planned papers, a title and short abstract (about 250 words) can be sent to the Editorial Office for assessment.

Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a single-anonymized peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. Applied Sciences is an international peer-reviewed open access semimonthly journal published by MDPI.

Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. The Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal is 2400 CHF (Swiss Francs). Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.

Keywords

virtual reality (VR)
augmented reality (AR)
mixed reality (MR)
healthcare

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Published Papers (7 papers)

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Research

Jump to: Review, Other

18 pages, 2953 KB

Open AccessArticle

Quantitative Analysis of Real-Time Virtual Reality Sickness During 360° Video Viewing

by Hyun Tak Kim, Su Young Kim and Yoon Sang Kim

Appl. Sci. 2026, 16(7), 3313; https://doi.org/10.3390/app16073313 - 29 Mar 2026

Viewed by 665

Abstract

Virtual reality (VR) sickness induced by wearing a head-mounted display and viewing 360° videos has primarily been studied using subjective questionnaires administered before and after content viewing. However, this approach is limited to identifying the onset of sickness during content viewing. This study quantitatively addresses the association between objective measures (gaze direction, head pose, electrocardiogram, and optical flow) and VR sickness, adopting an exploratory approach. Real-time sickness during 360° video viewing was measured using the fast motion sickness scale, and overall sickness susceptibility was evaluated using the simulator sickness questionnaire. The results indicated that a higher VR sickness severity was associated with reduced gaze entropy and an increase in the magnitude and entropy of optical flow, suggesting its potential as an objective measure for real-time VR sickness assessment. Furthermore, in the comparison between susceptibility groups, the high-susceptibility group had a nominally significantly lower heart rate variability than the low-susceptibility group, indicating that physiological signals may serve as auxiliary tools for sensing the baseline of VR sickness. The optical flow reflects the visual stimuli of VR content independent of personal susceptibility, suggesting its potential as a content-driven indicator of VR sickness. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Virtual Reality (VR) in Healthcare)

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16 pages, 4166 KB

Open AccessArticle

Preliminary Study on the Accuracy Comparison Between 3D-Printed Bone Models and Naked-Eye Stereoscopy-Based Virtual Reality Models for Presurgical Molding in Orbital Floor Fracture Repair

by Masato Tsuchiya, Izumi Yasutake, Satoru Tamura, Satoshi Kubo and Ryuichi Azuma

Appl. Sci. 2025, 15(24), 12963; https://doi.org/10.3390/app152412963 - 9 Dec 2025

Viewed by 601

Abstract

Three-dimensional (3D) printing enables accurate implant pre-shaping in orbital reconstruction but is costly and time-consuming. Naked-eye stereoscopic displays (NEDs) enable virtual implant modeling without fabrication. This study aimed to compare the reproducibility and accuracy of NED-based virtual reality (VR) pre-shaping with conventional 3D-printed models. Two surgeons pre-shaped implants for 11 unilateral orbital floor fractures using both 3D-printed and NED-based VR models with identical computed tomography data. The depth, area, and axis dimensions were measured, and reproducibility and agreement were assessed using intraclass correlation coefficients (ICCs), Bland–Altman analysis, and shape similarity metrics—Hausdorff distance (HD) and root mean square error (RMSE). Intra-rater ICCs were ≥0.80 for all parameters except depth in the VR model. The HD and RMSE reveal no significant differences between 3D (2.64 ± 0.85 mm; 1.02 ± 0.42 mm) and VR (3.14 ± 1.18 mm; 1.24 ± 0.53 mm). Inter-rater ICCs were ≥0.80 for the area and axes in both modalities, while depth remained low. Between modalities, no significant differences were found; HD and RMSE were 2.95 ± 0.94 mm and 1.28 ± 0.49 mm. The NED-based VR pre-shaping achieved reproducibility and dimensional agreement comparable to 3D printing, suggesting a feasible cost- and time-efficient alternative for orbital reconstruction. These preliminary findings suggest that NED-based preshaping may be feasible; however, larger studies are required to confirm whether VR can achieve performance comparable to 3D-printed models. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Virtual Reality (VR) in Healthcare)

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14 pages, 272 KB

Open AccessArticle

Effects of a Multimodal Immersive Virtual Reality Intervention on Heart Rate Variability in Adults with Post-COVID-19 Syndrome

by Neus Cano, Oscar Casas, Mar Ariza, Olga Gelonch, Yemila Plana, Bruno Porras-Garcia and Maite Garolera

Appl. Sci. 2025, 15(8), 4111; https://doi.org/10.3390/app15084111 - 8 Apr 2025

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 3579

Abstract

Background: Post-COVID-19 syndrome (PCC) is characterized by autonomic nervous system (ANS) dysregulation. Reduced heart rate variability (HRV) serves as a biomarker for ANS function. Few studies have assessed HRV modulations over treatment in PCC patients. This study evaluates the effects of a multimodal immersive virtual reality intervention—integrating cognitive training, physical exercise, and mindfulness practices—on HRV parameters. Methods: Eighteen PCC adults were assigned to reduced (16 sessions) and extended (24 sessions) training. HRV was assessed using an electrocardiogram weight scale at baseline, in the mid-term, and at the end of the intervention. Time-domain and frequency-domain HRV measures were extracted. Results: No significant group-by-time interactions were found. However, certain time-domain HRV parameters showed significant changes over time. Unexpectedly, HRV decreased from baseline to mid-intervention in both groups, with recovery by the end of the intervention. No significant changes were observed in frequency-domain measures. Conclusions: The temporary reduction in HRV suggested that the initial cognitive and physical demands may have temporarily induced physiological stress. The subsequent restoration of HRV suggested adaptation and increased resilience. The absence of enhanced HRV with extended training suggests that session intensity may be more influential than the number of sessions in modulating HRV among PCC patients. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Virtual Reality (VR) in Healthcare)

24 pages, 14765 KB

Open AccessArticle

Mixed Reality in Therapeutic Education for Diabetes: Grayscale and Color Passthrough Compared with Augmented Reality and Traditional Methods

by Marcelo Calle, Francisco Abad and M.-Carmen Juan

Appl. Sci. 2025, 15(7), 4021; https://doi.org/10.3390/app15074021 - 5 Apr 2025

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1946

Abstract

This publication presents the development of a new mixed reality (MR) application for headsets, using grayscale and color passthrough to support therapeutic education in diabetes. Passthrough technology allows users to see their real-world environment through cameras on the headset. A comparative study was conducted to assess the effectiveness of our application in its two visualization modes against traditional learning and an augmented reality (AR) application. The study assessed the increase in patients’ knowledge of the carbohydrate content of different foods, as well as the usability of and satisfaction with each application, with 92 Ecuadorian patients with Type 1 diabetes participating. The results indicate that all four learning methods positively influenced patient increase in knowledge (post–pre). However, pairwise comparisons of post-knowledge scores showed that the MR color passthrough and AR applications significantly outperformed the traditional method, with patients using color passthrough achieving greater post-learning outcomes than those using grayscale or AR. Positive post-knowledge outcomes were observed across all age and gender groups. The patient feedback on their experience with the MR application using color passthrough was significantly higher than with the grayscale version. Therefore, while all methods demonstrated positive effects on knowledge gain, the findings presented in this publication suggest that color passthrough offers great potential for creating engaging, context-rich, and interactive learning environments that have a positive effect on both learning and user experience. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Virtual Reality (VR) in Healthcare)

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26 pages, 8227 KB

Open AccessArticle

Enhancing Robotic-Assisted Lower Limb Rehabilitation Using Augmented Reality and Serious Gaming

by Calin Vaida, Gabriela Rus, Paul Tucan, José Machado, Adrian Pisla, Ionut Zima, Iosif Birlescu and Doina Pisla

Appl. Sci. 2024, 14(24), 12029; https://doi.org/10.3390/app142412029 - 23 Dec 2024

Cited by 12 | Viewed by 4552

Abstract

Stroke, amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS), and Parkinson’s disease are some of the conditions that can lead to neuromotor disabilities requiring rehabilitation. To address the socio-economic burden that is amplified by the rapidly increasing elderly population, traditional rehabilitation techniques have recently been complemented by technological advancements, particularly Robot-Assisted Therapy (RAT). RAT enhances motor learning by improving both accuracy and consistency. This study proposes an innovative rehabilitation system that combines serious gaming and augmented reality (AR) with the LegUp parallel robot, developed for the spatial rehabilitation of the hip, knee, and ankle in bed-ridden patients. The system aims to improve patient outcomes and actively involve patients in their therapy. Electro-goniometers and a HoloLens 2 device are used to provide immediate feedback about the position of the patient’s joints, forming the basis of an interactive game in which the patient moves their leg to reach various targets. Two game modes were developed, each targeting different aspects of neuromotor rehabilitation, such as coordination, strength, and flexibility. Preliminary findings suggest that combining RAT with augmented reality-based serious gaming can increase patient motivation and engagement. Furthermore, the personalized and interactive nature of the therapy holds the potential to improve rehabilitation outcomes by fostering sustained engagement and effort. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Virtual Reality (VR) in Healthcare)

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Review

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42 pages, 1158 KB

Open AccessReview

Virtual Reality in Preclinical and Clinical Education—An Insight into Current Advancements and Future Perspectives

by Adam Brachet, Maciej Biskupski, Gabriela Hunek, Jakub Rusek, Aleksandra Bełżek, Alicja Forma, Grzegorz Teresiński, Robert Sitarz, Robert Karpiński and Jacek Baj

Appl. Sci. 2025, 15(24), 12941; https://doi.org/10.3390/app152412941 - 8 Dec 2025

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2420

Abstract

This review examines the current state of virtual reality (VR) applications in preclinical and clinical medical education, emphasizing their impact on teaching effectiveness and clinical competence. A structured literature analysis was conducted to evaluate VR-based educational strategies across key medical domains, including anatomy, biochemistry, histology, surgery, emergency medicine, neurology, pediatrics, psychiatry, radiology, and rehabilitation. The reviewed studies demonstrate that VR enhances procedural performance, improves knowledge retention, strengthens diagnostic accuracy, and supports the acquisition of non-technical skills such as communication and teamwork. VR applications were also shown to reduce patient anxiety and pain during clinical procedures and improve engagement in rehabilitation programs. Despite persisting challenges such as cost, accessibility, and technical limitations, current evidence supports the growing role of VR as an effective, scalable, and safe educational and clinical tool. This review highlights critical opportunities for integrating VR into medical curricula and outlines future research directions aimed at optimizing its implementation in healthcare education. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Virtual Reality (VR) in Healthcare)

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Other

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16 pages, 543 KB

Open AccessSystematic Review

Technology Assessment Models in Healthcare Education: An Integrative Review and Future Perspectives in the Era of AI and VR

by Beatriz Alvarado-Robles, Alma Guadalupe Rodriguez-Ramirez, David Luviano-Cruz, Diana Ortiz-Muñoz, Victor Manuel Alonso-Mendoza and Francesco Garcia-Luna

Appl. Sci. 2026, 16(3), 1213; https://doi.org/10.3390/app16031213 - 24 Jan 2026

Viewed by 942

Abstract

This systematic integrative review examines methodological frameworks used to evaluate educational technologies in biomedical higher education. We synthesize five complementary approaches frequently reported in the literature: the Technology Acceptance Model (TAM), the Unified Theory of Acceptance and Use of Technology (UTAUT), the System Usability Scale (SUS), Technology Readiness Levels (TRL), and the ARCS motivational model. Each framework addresses distinct but interrelated dimensions of evaluation, including technology acceptance and intention to use, perceived usability and user experience, technological maturity and implementation risk, and learner motivation. Drawing on representative studies in e-learning platforms, virtual and extended reality environments, and clinical simulation, we discuss the strengths, limitations, and common pitfalls of applying these models in isolation. Based on this synthesis, we propose a pragmatic, multi-phase evaluation workflow that aligns usability, acceptance, motivation, and technological maturity across different stages of educational technology development and adoption. Finally, we outline exploratory future perspectives on how existing evaluation models might need to evolve to address emerging AI-driven, immersive, and haptic technologies in biomedical education. This abstract was prepared in accordance with PRISMA 2020 for Abstracts, ensuring structured reporting and transparency. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Virtual Reality (VR) in Healthcare)

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