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Active Disturbance Rejection Control: Theory, Design, and Applications in Advanced Actuation Systems

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A special issue of Actuators (ISSN 2076-0825). This special issue belongs to the section "Control Systems".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: 31 August 2026 | Viewed by 8302

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Editors

Dr. Yan Wu

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Guest Editor

Department of Mathematical Sciences, Georgia Southern University, Statesboro, GA, USA
Interests: adaptive control of nonlinear dynamical systems; active disturbance rejection control; differential algebraic systems; digital signal processing

Prof. Dr. Seenith Sivasundaram

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Guest Editor

Department of Mathematics, Bethune-Cookman University, Daytona Beach, FL 32114, USA
Interests: fractional differential equations; integral boundary conditions; Banach contraction principle; dynamical systems; fractional-order systems; delay differential equations; mathematical modelling
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Dr. Thomas Yang

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Department of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science, Embry-Riddle Aeronautical University, Daytona Beach, FL 32114-3900, USA
Interests: adaptive/statistical signal processing; independent component analysis; wireless communications
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

The growing complexity of modern engineering systems demands robust control strategies capable of maintaining performance in the presence of uncertainties, nonlinearities, and external disturbances. Active Disturbance Rejection Control (ADRC) has emerged as a powerful, model-independent control framework that achieves this by estimating and actively compensating for total disturbances in real time. Over the past two decades, ADRC has seen significant theoretical advancements and a broadening range of applications, spanning robotics, power systems, process control, aerospace, and biomedical systems. Recent research has emphasized improved observer and controller design, stability and robustness analysis, tuning methodologies, and the integration of ADRC with data-driven or AI-enhanced techniques. Practical implementations have also addressed challenges related to digital realization, sensor limitations, and real-time computational efficiency.

This Special Issue aims to showcase original research and review articles that reflect the state of the art in ADRC, highlighting new theoretical developments, practical innovations, and application-driven studies. We welcome contributions that advance the understanding or implementation of ADRC across diverse domains, including both simulation-based and experimental work. Topics of interest include, but are not limited to, observer design, control synthesis, tuning strategies, hybrid methods, robustness analysis, and emerging applications. Papers exploring interdisciplinary approaches or novel uses of ADRC in challenging control scenarios are particularly encouraged.

Dr. Yan Wu
Prof. Dr. Seenith Sivasundaram
Dr. Thomas Yang
Guest Editors

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Keywords

extended state observer
nonlinear control
bandwidth parametrization
error feedback control
dynamic compensation
robustness
model independence
decoupling
tracking differentiator

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Published Papers (13 papers)

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Research

19 pages, 813 KB

Open AccessArticle

Prescribed-Time Output-Feedback Consensus of Nonlinear Multi-Agent Systems with Mismatched Uncertainties via Active Disturbance Rejection Control

by Xixi Shen, Jiangping Hu and Xiaojuan Wu

Actuators 2026, 15(7), 394; https://doi.org/10.3390/act15070394 - 12 Jul 2026

Viewed by 215

Abstract

This brief investigates the prescribed-time output-feedback consensus problem for a class of nonlinear multi-agent systems (MASs) subject to mismatched uncertainties and external disturbances. The key challenge lies in designing a low-complexity distributed protocol that achieves exact consensus within a user-assignable time, without relying on full-state measurements or conventional state transformations that impose restrictive differentiability conditions. To address this challenge, we propose a novel prescribed-time active disturbance rejection control (ADRC) scheme that integrates a prescribed-time extended state observer (PTESO) with a backstepping-based consensus protocol. The PTESO simultaneously estimates the unmeasured states and disturbances to achieve feedforward compensation, while the backstepping controller avoids reformulating mismatched terms into the input channel. By employing the homogeneous domination technique, both the tracking errors and the observer estimation errors are rigorously shown to converge to zero within the prescribed time. Numerical simulations validate the effectiveness and practical applicability of the proposed method in a networked control scenario. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Active Disturbance Rejection Control: Theory, Design, and Applications in Advanced Actuation Systems)

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19 pages, 12804 KB

Open AccessArticle

Model-Assisted Active Disturbance Rejection Control for Permanent Magnet Synchronous Motor with Gearbox Broken Tooth Fault: Design and Experiments

by Zikang Hu, Daolu Li, Tianhai Zhao, Zherui Li, Junhui Gu and Shengquan Li

Actuators 2026, 15(7), 374; https://doi.org/10.3390/act15070374 - 5 Jul 2026

Viewed by 288

Abstract

To address the degradation of speed regulation performance in the permanent magnet synchronous motor (PMSM) transmission system caused by the gearbox broken tooth fault and disturbances, a fault model-assisted active disturbance rejection control (FMA-ADRC) algorithm is proposed in this paper. First, an electromechanical coupling model of the motor–gearbox transmission system is established based on the dynamic model of the tooth fault. Secondly, a fault model-assisted extended state observer (ESO) in the active disturbance rejection controller is designed, where the periodic torque disturbances caused by the fault are compensated to reduce the estimation burden on the observer. In addition, the observer is nonlinearized to improve the accuracy of tracking disturbances. The observer error of the nonlinear ESO (NESO) is proven to converge to a bounded region within finite time by using the Lyapunov stability proof theory. Finally, the speed regulation performance of the proposed FMA-ADRC controller is verified under different degrees of fault using an experimental platform based on DSP28335 and MATLAB/SIMULINK R2023b. The reliability and superiority of the proposed controller are verified by the experiment results. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Active Disturbance Rejection Control: Theory, Design, and Applications in Advanced Actuation Systems)

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29 pages, 1602 KB

Open AccessArticle

Robust Adaptive Control for Discrete-Time Multi-Robot Systems with Actuator and Sensor Attacks

by Shahid Hussain Gurmani, Somayya Komal, Waqar Ul Hassan, Afreen Bibi, Muhammad Jabir Khan and Meshal Shutaywi

Actuators 2026, 15(7), 368; https://doi.org/10.3390/act15070368 - 3 Jul 2026

Viewed by 436

Abstract

This paper addresses the challenges of achieving robust coordination in discrete-time multi-robot systems subject to uncertainties and Byzantine attacks affecting both actuator and sensor channels. Such adversarial disruptions degrade system performance by corrupting control inputs and state measurements, ultimately threatening stability and consensus in networked robotic systems. To overcome these limitations, a novel discrete-time adaptive control framework is proposed that ensures reliable tracking and stability under both uncoupled and coupled robot dynamics. The approach integrates a modified graph-theoretic structure with node-dependent weighting to capture heterogeneous robot interactions, while explicitly modeling attack effects within the system dynamics. An adaptive control law is developed using a nonlinear basis function approximation to handle unknown system uncertainties, along with a dynamic weight update mechanism that compensates for adversarial disturbances in real time. For the uncoupled case, stability is established through a composite Lyapunov function incorporating logarithmic and quadratic terms, guaranteeing boundedness of all closed-loop signals and asymptotic convergence of the tracking error. This framework is further extended to systems with coupled dynamics by introducing an auxiliary estimation mechanism to reconstruct unmeasurable interactions, leading to a unified adaptive controller capable of mitigating both internal uncertainties and external attacks. Rigorous Lyapunov-based analysis demonstrates that the proposed method ensures asymptotic tracking performance despite the presence of Byzantine disturbances. Numerical simulations validate the theoretical results, showing improved resilience, accurate trajectory tracking, and enhanced robustness compared to existing approaches. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Active Disturbance Rejection Control: Theory, Design, and Applications in Advanced Actuation Systems)

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30 pages, 1478 KB

Open AccessArticle

Weak Disturbance Decoupling for Strict Feedback-like Systems with Unknown Nonlinearities and Its Application in Manipulators

by Guangyue Du, Na Wang, Xiaoping Liu and Weigang Pan

Actuators 2026, 15(6), 325; https://doi.org/10.3390/act15060325 - 7 Jun 2026

Viewed by 257

Abstract

All real control systems are subject to uncertainties and disturbances, so feedback controllers have to be designed such that closed-loop systems possess the desired dynamic and steady-state responses in the presence of any allowable uncertainties and disturbances. It is common practice to address the effects of uncertainties and disturbances via bounding techniques and the almost disturbance decoupling approach, respectively. Linear, affine, and power growth conditions on uncertainties are required for almost disturbance decoupling. However, when these conditions are not satisfied, almost disturbance decoupling is not possible. A new concept called weak disturbance decoupling is introduced to mitigate the effects of disturbances. A weak disturbance decoupling problem is to find a feedback controller so that the close-loop system has the weak disturbance decoupling performance, that is, the closed-loop system is stable and the norm of the output is not greater than the sum of a positive constant and the product of the norm of the disturbance and a positive constant. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Active Disturbance Rejection Control: Theory, Design, and Applications in Advanced Actuation Systems)

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21 pages, 798 KB

Open AccessArticle

Active Disturbance Rejection Control of Quadrotor UAVs Under Uncertainties and Disturbances

by Jing Wang and Thomas Yang

Actuators 2026, 15(6), 286; https://doi.org/10.3390/act15060286 - 26 May 2026

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 538

Abstract

Quadrotor unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs), commonly known as quadcopters, pose a fundamental control challenge: they are underactuated, open-loop unstable, strongly coupled across six degrees of freedom, and highly susceptible to aerodynamic disturbances and payload uncertainty. Classical model-based controllers degrade significantly when the vehicle mass shifts due to battery discharge or payload pickup, or when wind gusts produce forces comparable to the available thrust margin—an especially acute problem for nano-scale quadcopters. This paper proposes an active disturbance rejection control (ADRC) to address these challenges. Rather than attempting to model every source of uncertainty, we employ an extended state observer (ESO) to estimate a single total disturbance signal—comprising unmodeled dynamics, parametric errors, nonlinear coupling, and external disturbances—in real time from sensor measurements alone, and cancel it before applying a simple feedback law. Building on this principle, we derive a cascaded linear ADRC (LADRC) architecture that governs all six degrees of freedom of the quadcopter and formulate the quadrotor-specific total-disturbance structure for each control channel. Simulations demonstrate that the proposed controller maintains small, bounded position-tracking RMS errors under 30% mass uncertainty combined with a sustained lateral wind-gust disturbance, while delivering the correct hover thrust automatically without prior knowledge of the true mass and without integrator wind-up. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Active Disturbance Rejection Control: Theory, Design, and Applications in Advanced Actuation Systems)

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20 pages, 3693 KB

Open AccessArticle

LSTM-Based Reduced-Order Modeling of Secondary Loop of Nuclear-Powered Propulsion Actuation System

by Kaiyu Li, Lizhi Jiang, Xinxin Cai, Fengyun Li, Gang Xie, Zhiwei Zheng, Wenlin Wang, Hongxing Lu and Guohua Wu

Actuators 2026, 15(4), 225; https://doi.org/10.3390/act15040225 - 16 Apr 2026

Viewed by 441

Abstract

The dynamic response of the secondary circuit system in nuclear propulsion plants is critical to the power output, safety, and energy efficiency of nuclear-powered ships. High-fidelity thermo-hydraulic simulation models can accurately capture system transients but are computationally expensive and unsuitable for real-time applications. To address this limitation, this study proposes a reduced-order dynamic parameter prediction method that integrates high-fidelity simulation with deep learning. A multi-operating-condition simulation model of a typical nuclear-powered ship secondary circuit system is developed to generate time-series data covering load ramping and propulsion mode switching. Based on this dataset, a conventional recurrent neural network (RNN) and a multilayer long short-term memory (LSTM) network are constructed for multivariate autoregressive prediction of 17 key dynamic parameters, and their performances are systematically compared. Results show that the LSTM significantly outperforms the RNN in capturing long-term temporal dependencies, achieving average RMSE and MAPE values of 0.0228% and 0.365%, respectively. The proposed model completes 50-step-ahead prediction within 0.84 s, satisfying real-time requirements. The hybrid simulation-driven and data-driven framework provides a practical solution for intelligent monitoring and control optimization of nuclear-powered ship propulsion systems. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Active Disturbance Rejection Control: Theory, Design, and Applications in Advanced Actuation Systems)

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24 pages, 3710 KB

Open AccessArticle

Active Disturbance Rejection Predictive Control for Drill-Arm Positioning of Hydraulic Drill-Anchor Robots Based on Friction Compensation and PSO Tuning

by Feng Jiao, Hongbing Qiao, Xiaolong Tong, Kai Li, Ruihe Cao and Rongxin Zhu

Actuators 2026, 15(4), 193; https://doi.org/10.3390/act15040193 - 1 Apr 2026

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 497

Abstract

The anchoring effect of drill-anchor equipment directly determines the support quality of roadways. Currently, hydraulic drill-anchor robots suffer from insufficient positioning control precision during operation, and drilling position deviations induce roadway collapse risks and serious safety hazards. Therefore, effectively improving the position control accuracy of the drill arm of drill-anchor robots is a critical prerequisite for ensuring roadway support safety. Aiming at the drill-arm position control system of drill-anchor robots, this study establishes a friction model for friction compensation based on the analysis of the motion mechanism of drill-anchor robots and then constructs mathematical models for the slewing and pitching systems respectively. To realize the precise position control of the drill arm, an active disturbance rejection predictive control scheme is proposed. An extended state observer (ESO) is adopted to observe the system states and unmodeled disturbances, and the particle swarm optimization (PSO) algorithm with an improved objective function is applied to optimize the parameters of the drill-arm position controller. Finally, simulation results demonstrate that the designed active disturbance rejection predictive control method for drill-arm positioning, based on friction compensation and PSO tuning, exhibits excellent control performance and achieves accurate trajectory tracking of the drill-arm position of drill-anchor robots. This research has important theoretical and practical significance for promoting the automatic control of drill-anchor robots in underground engineering. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Active Disturbance Rejection Control: Theory, Design, and Applications in Advanced Actuation Systems)

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17 pages, 2456 KB

Open AccessArticle

Active Disturbance Rejection Control of an Active Suspension System Based on Fuzzy Extended State Observers

by Carlos Saralegui Esteve, Miguel Meléndez-Useros and Fernando Viadero-Monasterio

Actuators 2026, 15(3), 132; https://doi.org/10.3390/act15030132 - 26 Feb 2026

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 736

Abstract

Through this paper, an active disturbance rejection control scheme is designed based on an extended state observer capable of estimating the system’s internal variables and external disturbances without the need for expensive sensors and also attenuates sensor-induced noise, supporting cleaner measurements. The extended state observer is dynamically adjusted using fuzzy logic techniques. The proposed method is validated in Matlab/Simulink, with the results showing a significant reduction in both body displacement and acceleration compared to passive suspension systems, representing a direct improvement in vehicle stability and ride comfort; this demonstrates the robustness and adaptability of the proposed system. The evaluation covers three road excitations, sinusoidal, step, and trapezoidal, to broaden the analysis under both smooth and abrupt disturbances. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Active Disturbance Rejection Control: Theory, Design, and Applications in Advanced Actuation Systems)

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23 pages, 3115 KB

Open AccessArticle

Open Gate, Open Switch and Short Circuit Fault Detection of Three-Phase Inverter Switches in Induction Motor Drive Applications

by Mohammad Zamani Khaneghah, Mohamad Alzayed and Hicham Chaoui

Actuators 2026, 15(1), 34; https://doi.org/10.3390/act15010034 - 5 Jan 2026

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1194

Abstract

Electric motor drives with a wide variety of applications are usually derived with inverters, where the inverter switches are always prone to different types of faults. Short circuit faults can rapidly shut down systems, and open-circuit ones can lead to secondary damage if they are not detected and tolerated in time. Due to this fact, in this paper, a novel data-driven fault detection and diagnosis (FDD) method has been proposed to detect and locate all types of inverter switch faults. Three deep learning algorithms, including fully connected neural networks (FCNs), convolutional neural networks (CNNs), and bidirectional long short-term memory (BiLSTM), have been implemented and compared. The BiLSTM network with 98.45% accuracy outperforms the others and can detect all types of faults in less than half a fundamental period under different and variable speeds with the existence of noise. The results show that the proposed method is highly effective and is a great candidate for real-time applications. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Active Disturbance Rejection Control: Theory, Design, and Applications in Advanced Actuation Systems)

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21 pages, 1303 KB

Open AccessArticle

Steady-State Disturbance-Rejection Controllability for LTI Systems with Rigid-Body Mode

by Haemin Lee and Jinseong Park

Actuators 2025, 14(12), 589; https://doi.org/10.3390/act14120589 - 3 Dec 2025

Viewed by 740

Abstract

Controllability metrics based on system Gramians have been widely adopted to provide quantitative measures of the degree of controllability (DoC) and the disturbance rejection capability (DoDR) of dynamical systems. While steady-state Gramian formulations offer closed-form tractability, they are not applicable when rigid-body modes are present, as the associated poles at the origin cause the conventional Gramians to diverge. This paper presents a novel steady-state DoDR metric for linear time-invariant systems with a rigid-body mode. By block-diagonalizing the dynamics through a similarity transformation and analyzing the asymptotic behavior of the Gramian matrices, we derive an exact closed-form expression for the steady-state DoDR. The resulting formulation is numerically stable and enables systematic evaluation of disturbance-rejection capability even in the presence of a rigid-body mode. The proposed metric is validated using a mass–spring–damper chain model, where its effectiveness is demonstrated in actuator placement problems. The results show that the metric not only remains computationally well-posed but also provides physically meaningful interpretations consistent with modal characteristics. This study establishes a foundation for extending disturbance-rejection metrics to systems with multiple rigid-body modes, thereby broadening the applicability of Gramian-based controllability analysis. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Active Disturbance Rejection Control: Theory, Design, and Applications in Advanced Actuation Systems)

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20 pages, 12107 KB

Open AccessArticle

Research on Cooperative Stabilization Control of Multi-Pointing-Mirror Laser Communication Terminals Based on GA-ADRC

by Lihui Wang, Lizhong Zhang, Lixin Meng and Yangyang Bai

Actuators 2025, 14(12), 571; https://doi.org/10.3390/act14120571 - 25 Nov 2025

Viewed by 761

Abstract

Aiming at the control challenges of strong nonlinearity, time-varying parameters and multi-channel disturbance coupling in multi-address laser communication networking caused by the common inertial reference of multi-directional mirror strapdown stabilized platforms, a genetic algorithm-optimized active disturbance rejection control (GA-ADRC) method is proposed. By constructing a distributed active disturbance rejection control (ADRC) architecture and using genetic algorithms to globally and collaboratively optimize the observer gain and control parameters, the disturbance suppression and dynamic decoupling of multi-variable systems are effectively achieved. Experimental results show that under 0.1–0.3 Hz base disturbances, this method improves the line of sight (LOS) stabilization accuracy by 28–32%, with a standard deviation better than 14 μrad, significantly outperforming traditional PID control. This research not only provides a high-accuracy control solution that does not rely on precise models for multi-LOS cooperative stabilization but also offers a generalizable theoretical and practical framework for the intelligent control of complex optoelectronic systems. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Active Disturbance Rejection Control: Theory, Design, and Applications in Advanced Actuation Systems)

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15 pages, 3491 KB

Open AccessArticle

Gearless Coal Mill Anti-Disturbance Sliding Mode Control Based on Improved Deadbeat Predictive Current Control

by Qiming Wang, Mingduo Zhang and Changhong Jiang

Actuators 2025, 14(11), 554; https://doi.org/10.3390/act14110554 - 11 Nov 2025

Viewed by 529

Abstract

This paper presents a composite control strategy for gearless coal mill to improve the disturbance immunity under low-speed variable operating conditions. First, the gearless coal mill encounters power supply voltage fluctuations, mechanical failures, or ambient temperature changes during operation. These situations can cause the system to suffer from the problem of insufficient control accuracy of the rotational speed. Therefore, a non-singular fast terminal sliding mode control strategy is proposed to improve the speed response. Then, to address the problem of load perturbation caused by different coal quality, this paper designs the extended state observer. Feed-forward compensation of the perturbation is performed to improve the robustness. Finally, due to the parameter mismatch problem caused by heat in operations that take a long time, this paper proposes a sliding-mode-based deadbeat predictive current control. The strategy possesses the fast dynamic response of deadbeat predictive current control while retaining the strong robustness of sliding mode control. Lyapunov proved the stability of the proposed control strategy. The experimental results verified that the proposed control strategy had better control performance. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Active Disturbance Rejection Control: Theory, Design, and Applications in Advanced Actuation Systems)

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19 pages, 860 KB

Open AccessArticle

Decentralized Disturbance Rejection Control of Triangularly Coupled Loop Thermosyphon System

by Novel Kumar Dey and Yan Wu

Actuators 2025, 14(11), 532; https://doi.org/10.3390/act14110532 - 1 Nov 2025

Viewed by 765

Abstract

In this paper, we investigate the stability of a triangularly coupled triple-loop thermosyphon system with momentum and heat exchange at the coupling point as well as the existence of disturbances. The controller consists of a single, local-state feedback. From the stability analysis, we obtain explicit bounds on the feedback gains, which depend on the Rayleigh numbers and the momentum coupling parameter, but independent of the thermal coupling parameter. The existence of the stability bounds allows us to design decentralized adaptive controllers to automatically search for the feasible gains when the system parameters are unknown. In the case of existing disturbances in the system, we approximate the disturbances via an extended-state observer for the purpose of disturbance rejection. Numerical results are given to demonstrate the performance of the proposed decentralized disturbance rejection controller design. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Active Disturbance Rejection Control: Theory, Design, and Applications in Advanced Actuation Systems)

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