Sensory and Physicochemical Characterization of Sourdough Bread Prepared with a Coconut Water Kefir Starter
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Microorganisms Used to Formulate the Sourdough
2.2. Production and Formulation of Sourdough Breads Using Factorial Analysis
2.3. Sensory Analysis of Breads
2.3.1. Ethics Statement and Location
2.3.2. Sensory Attributes
2.3.3. Panelists
2.3.4. Panelist Training
2.3.5. Check-All-That-Apply (CATA)
2.3.6. Tasting Conditions
2.4. Nutritional Composition and Physicochemical Analysis of the Sourdough Bread
2.4.1. Ash
2.4.2. Carbohydrate
2.4.3. Dietary Fiber
2.4.4. Fat
2.4.5. Moisture
2.4.6. Protein
2.4.7. Total Titratable Acidity
2.4.8. Enumeration of Yeasts and Molds
2.5. Texture Analysis
2.6. Determination of Carboxylic Acids Using LC-MS
2.7. Determination of Amino Acids Using LC-MS
2.8. Statistical Analysis
3. Results and Discussion
3.1. Sensory Analysis of Sourdough Breads Using Check-All-That-Apply (CATA)
Correspondence Analysis
3.2. Proximate Composition and Texture Analysis
3.2.1. Protein Content
3.2.2. Total Titratable Acidity (TTA)
3.2.3. Shelf Life
3.2.4. Texture Analysis
3.3. Carboxylic Acids
3.4. Amino Acids
4. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Breads | Flour (g) | Coconut Water Kefir with 12.00 G/L of Added Sucrose (mL) | Sourdough (LAB) (Log CFU/mL) | Salt (g) | Dry Yeast (Saccharomyces Cerevisiae) (g) | Time of Fermentation (h) | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Isolate 1 Lactobacillus fermentum | Isolate 2 Lactobacillus plantarum | ||||||
Bread A | 500.00 | 300.00 | 8.30 | 8.18 | 1.16 | 18 | |
Bread B | 500.00 | 300.00 | 8.30 | 8.18 | 0 | 24 | |
Bread C | 500.00 | 300.00 | 4.90 | 8.18 | 1.16 | 18 | |
Bread D | 500.00 | 300.00 | 4.90 | 8.18 | 0 | 24 | |
Bread E | 500.00 | 300.00 | 9.60 | 8.18 | 1.16 | 18 | |
Bread F | 500.00 | 300.00 | 9.60 | 8.18 | 0 | 24 | |
Bread G | 500.00 | 300.00 | 5.00 | 8.18 | 1.16 | 18 | |
Bread H | 500.00 | 300.00 | 5.00 | 8.18 | 0 | 24 |
Attributes | Food Reference | Definition | References |
---|---|---|---|
FLAVOUR (Taste and smell) | |||
Buttery | Mainland unsalted butter (Countdown, NZ) | The aromatics commonly associated with natural, fresh, unsalted butter | [41] |
Nutty | Coconut meat–dry (Countdown, NZ) | Taste associated with nuts, like coconut | [42] |
Sour | 0.1% citric acid solution | Sour taste, like that elicited by citrus fruits | [41] |
Coconut | Concentrated coconut water (UFC, NZ) | Coconut water taste | [41] |
Roasted | Roasted bread (White bread, Countdown, NZ) | Aroma associated with roasted bread | [42] |
Sweet | 3% sucrose solution | Sweet taste, like that elicited by sugar | [41] |
Salty | 0.2% sodium chloride solution | Salty or umami taste–elicited by glutamic acid or NaCl solution | |
Floury | Typical of wholemeal flour of wheat mixed with boiling water in proportion 1:2 | Aromatics associated with standard baking flour (example: wheat flour) | |
Yeasty | A teaspoon of yeast in 250 mL of water | Odor associated with yeast fermentation in bread | |
Toasted | Toasted white bread, (Countdown NZ) | The odor impression of bread and crumb after baking/heating | [42] |
Fresh | Freshly or recently baked bread loaf | [43] | |
Fruity | Mixed fruit platter from (Countdown, NZ) | An aromatic impression of dark fruit that may include sweet, slightly brown, overripe or somewhat sour | [42] |
APPEARANCE | |||
Developed | Loaf of fresh bread from Deli (Countdown, NZ) | When the bread is leavened properly and develops small air pockets/small holes | [41] |
Overcooked | Overcooked bread | When the bread is cooked beyond the normal time and tastes a bit burnt | [43] |
Homogenous | Homogeneity of the pores in the crumb | ||
Heterogenous | Unevenly distributed pores in the crumb | ||
Golden | When the color of the crust is light brown/golden upon baking | ||
Flat | Due to less aeration and leavening of the dough | ||
Dark | Degree of color darkness in the crumb ranging from white to dark brown | ||
Thin | Width of the crust is less | ||
Thick | Width of the crust is bigger | ||
Smooth | Smoothness/evenness of the crust | ||
Shiny | Croissant (Countdown, NZ) | Reflection of light on the piece | |
Greasy | The appearance of bread which is covered with oil/animal fat later | ||
Cracked | The split crust due to increased leavening | ||
Brown/Beige | The color of the bread after baking | ||
Blister | Formation of tiny bubbles on the bread crust after baking | ||
Porous | Air pockets in the leavened bread | ||
Sticky | Bread particles stick to the pallet during mastication and take a longer time to be washed down by the saliva | ||
Small holes | Pores in the leavened bread | ||
Dry | Sensation of dryness due to lack of saliva; absence of water | [44] | |
Compact/Dense crumb | Bread containing little cells filled with gas; high density | [44] | |
Airy crumb/Big hole | Bread containing cells filled with gas; low density | [44] | |
TEXTURE | |||
Supple | Degree to which particles reside on the palate during consumption | [41] | |
Spongy | Sponge cake (Countdown, NZ) | Like a sponge, especially in being porous, compressible or absorbent. | [44] |
Soft | Sandwich bread (Countdown, NZ) | Less force required to bite through sample | |
Crunchy | Low pitch sound produced on crust fracture during mastication | ||
Moist | Amount of moisture perceived on the surface of the product when in contact with the oral cavity | [41] | |
Hard | Force required to bite completely through sample placed between the molars | ||
Dry | Bread baked due to loss of moisture | [43] | |
Doughy | Underbaked bread dough | ||
Chewiness | Longer time required to chew the bread to reduce it to a consistency suitable for swallowing | ||
Crumbly | Bread particles fall apart easily | [44] |
Products/Dimensions | p-Values | A | B | C | D | E | F | G | H |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Appearance | |||||||||
Airy crumb | 0.000 | 13 b | 0 a | 0 a | 0 a | 10 b | 10 b | 0 a | 0 a |
Beige | 0.000 | 5 b | 0 a | 13 c | 0 a | 12 c | 3 b | 23 d | 24 d |
Big hole | 0.001 | 15 b,c | 22 c | 10 b | 13 b,c | 4 a | 13 b,c | 11 b | 6 a |
Blister | 0.000 | 23 e | 22 e | 0 a | 12 d | 8 c | 22 e | 7 c | 1 a,b |
Dark | 0.000 | 27 e | 17 c,d | 7 b,c | 20 d | 3 a | 6 b | 15 c | 12 c |
Dense crumb | 0.034 | 8 b | 15 d,e | 17 e | 14 c,d | 8 a,b | 5 a | 12 b,c | 12 b,c |
Developed | 0.018 | 4 b,c | 5 c | 4 b,c | 5 a,b | 2 a | 3 a,b | 9 d | 12 e |
Doughy | 0.000 | 12 d | 0 a | 0 a | 9 c | 7 b | 0 a | 0 a | 0 a |
Greasy | 0.000 | 3 a | 5 b,c | 19c | 3 a | 8 d | 6 c | 14 e | 18 f |
Heterogenous | 0.000 | 19g | 16 e | 1 a | 17 e,f | 7 d | 7 d | 3 b,c | 5 c |
Light | 0.001 | 12 e | 16 g | 9 a,b,c | 15 f,g | 4 b | 2 a | 9 c,d | 10 d |
Moist | 0.000 | 9 d | 20 g | 3 a | 6 c | 9 d | 13 e,f | 11 d,e | 4 b |
Overcooked | 0.001 | 7 a | 11 c | 8 b | 9 b,c | 22 f | 18 e | 17 d,e | 18 e |
Porous | 0.000 | 16 i | 6 c,d | 3 b,c | 5 c | 1 a | 13 f,g | 12 e,f | 14 g,h |
Shiny | 0.029 | 15 f,g | 7 a,b | 14 a,b,c | 6 a | 12 d,e | 19 h | 14 e,f | 10 c,d |
Small holes | 0.002 | 13 e,f | 10 c,d | 4 b | 11 d,e | 1 a | 15 f | 10 c,d | 10 c,d |
Smooth | 0.002 | 10 d,e | 6 b | 9 c,d | 8 b,c | 1 a | 15 f,g | 16 g | 13 f |
Supple | 0.000 | 4 b,c | 3 a,b | 8 d | 5 c | 2 a | 13 f,g | 11 e | 14 g |
Thick | 0.067 | 15 | 9 | 10 | 4 | 15 | 14 | 13 | 11 |
Flat | 0.068 | 3 | 5 | 8 | 7 | 4 | 10 | 8 | 1 |
Golden | 0.103 | 15 | 18 | 15 | 16 | 12 | 14 | 7 | 8 |
Crunch | 0.110 | 5 | 7 | 6 | 13 | 10 | 13 | 12 | 14 |
Sticky | 0.130 | 14 | 9 | 5 | 7 | 14 | 12 | 13 | 11 |
Cracked | 0.221 | 9 | 11 | 6 | 11 | 8 | 5 | 5 | 4 |
Thin | 0.244 | 9 | 6 | 9 | 5 | 5 | 1 | 10 | 6 |
Grey | 0.523 | 11 | 14 | 7 | 14 | 9 | 11 | 11 | 15 |
Homogenous | 0.618 | 11 | 16 | 10 | 11 | 10 | 11 | 14 | 15 |
Brown | 0.772 | 9 | 11 | 13 | 8 | 7 | 12 | 11 | 11 |
Flavor (Taste and smell) | |||||||||
Buttery | 0.000 | 15 b,c | 10 b | 0 a | 16 b,c | 13 b | 22 c | 2 b | 1 a,b |
Nutty | 0.000 | 17 c,d | 21 f | 18 d,e | 19 e | 7 a | 14 b | 16 b,c | 7 a |
Sour | 0.000 | 5 b,c | 12 d,e | 11 d | 6 c | 3 a | 17 g | 15 f | 16 f,g |
Roast | 0.000 | 2 a | 4 b,c | 17 f | 4 b,c | 6 c | 6 c | 15 e,f | 11 d |
Sweet | 0.044 | 5 b,c | 5 b,c | 9 d | 6 c | 1 a | 9 d | 11 e | 11 e |
Yeasty | 0.002 | 10 d | 5 b | 4 a,b | 5 b | 3 a | 15 f | 13 e | 9 c,d |
Fresh | 0.050 | 6 c,d | 5 b,c | 8 d | 12 e,f | 11 e | 3 a | 15 f | 4 a,b |
Fruity | 0.057 | 14 | 7 | 6 | 9 | 9 | 6 | 3 | 5 |
Toasted | 0.085 | 11 | 6 | 11 | 6 | 15 | 16 | 9 | 13 |
Coconut | 0.126 | 11 | 13 | 18 | 6 | 9 | 10 | 11 | 10 |
Texture | |||||||||
Chewiness | 0.000 | 10 b | 0 a | 0 a | 12 b,c | 14 c | 0 a | 0 a | 0 a |
Coarse | 0.000 | 9 b | 0 a | 0 a | 10 b,c | 13 c | 0 a | 0 a | 0 a |
Compact | 0.002 | 0 a | 3 a,b,c | 8 b,c,d | 2 a,b | 9 c,d | 3 a,b,c | 11 d | 6 b,c,d |
Crumbly | 0.006 | 4 b,c | 0 a | 0 a | 3 b | 4 b,c | 0 a | 0 a | 0 a |
Dry | 0.000 | 13 c | 19 e | 4 a | 17 d,e | 7 b,c | 15 c,d | 4 a | 6 b |
Elastic | 0.000 | 13 e,f | 0 a | 15 f | 9 d | 10 d,e | 5 c | 4 b,c | 22 g |
Firm | 0.004 | 9 c | 15 f,g | 9 c | 3 a | 4 a,b | 16 g | 13 e | 12 d,e |
Hard | 0.005 | 11 d,e | 14 f,g | 22 h | 10 c,d | 8 a | 9 a,b,c | 8 a | 16 g |
Soft | 0.000 | 1 b | 14 e,f | 4 c | 2 b,c | 0 a | 15 g | 14 e,f | 10 d |
Spongy | 0.004 | 21 f,g | 11 c | 7 a | 20 f | 16 e | 12 c,d | 9 b | 11 c |
Bread Samples | Histidine (µM/L) | Hydroxy Proline (µM/L) | Arginine (µM/L) | Serine (µM/L) | Glycine (µM/L) | Aspartic Acid (µM/L) | Threonine (µM/L) | Glutamic Acid (µM/L) | Alanine (µM/L) |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
D | 10.4 ± 0.1 c | 8 ± 0.2 b | 53.8 ± 0.4 a | 298.2 ± 2.4 c | 354.1 ± 7.9 c | 295.9 ± 45.1 b | 88.0 ± 2.2 c | 121.4 ± 1.5 c | 531.2 ± 13.7 c |
F | 11.8 ± 0.3 a | 9.5 ± 0.2 a | 54 ± 1.4 a | 373.1 ± 1.9 a | 413.9 ± 2.1 a | 350.2 ± 5 a | 184.3 ± 2.4 a | 166.6 ± 1.8 a | 783.1 ± 6.3 a |
B | 10.8 ± 0.1 b | 7.2 ± 0.6 c | 54.5 ± 0.9 a | 358.6 ± 3.8 b | 403.1 ± 1.4 b | 297.3 ± 6.1 b | 160.2 ± 5.7 b | 152.8 ± 1.2 b | 755.2 ± 4.5 b |
p-value | <0.0001 | <0.0001 | 0.537 | <0.0001 | <0.0001 | 0.010 | <0.0001 | <0.0001 | <0.0001 |
Bread Samples | Proline (µM/L) | Lysine (µM/L) | Methionine (µM/L) | Valine (µM/L) | Tyrosine (µM/L) | Isoleucine (µM/L) | Leucine (µM/L) | Phenylalanine (µM/L) | Tryptophan (µM/L) |
D | 251.3 ± 5.1 c | 31.3 ± 1.4 c | 8.30 ± 0.2 c | 5.2 ± 0.1 c | 4.2 ± 0.1c | 3.2 ± 0 c | 4.6 ± 0.1 c | 2.3 ± 0.1 c | 8.30 ± 0.2 c |
F | 333.1 ± 2 a | 46.1 ± 1.1 a | 12.1 ± 0.4 a | 10 ± 0.3 a | 6.3 ± 0 a | 7.6 ± 0.1 a | 8.8 ± 0.1 a | 5.3 ± 0.1 a | 15.0 ± 0.2 a |
B | 312.7 ± 4.8 b | 37.4 ± 1.1 b | 11.1 ± 0.1 b | 8.4 ± 0.1 b | 5.3 ± 0.1 b | 5.7 ± 0.1 b | 6.6 ± 0.2 b | 3.6 ± 0.1 b | 11.4 ± 0.2 b |
p-value | <0.0001 | <0.0001 | <0.0001 | <0.0001 | <0.0001 | <0.0001 | <0.0001 | <0.0001 | <0.0001 |
Test Name | Bread Sample B | Bread Sample D | Bread Sample F | p-Value |
---|---|---|---|---|
Ash Content (g/100 g) | 1.80 ± 0.10 a | 1.90 ± 0.10 a | 1.90 ± 0.20 a | 0.422 |
Carbohydrates (g/100 g) | 51.20 ± 0.20 a | 53.10 ± 0.40 a | 51.90 ± 0.30 a | 0.455 |
Dietary fiber (g/100 g) | 3.10 ± 0.10 a | 2.90 ± 0.10 b | 3.20 ± 0.20 a | 0.064 |
Fat Content (g/100 g) | 1.20 ± 0.00 a | 1.20 ± 0.00 a | 1.40 ± 0.00 a | 0.079 |
Moisture (g/100 g) | 33.60 ± 0.10 b | 32.60 ± 0.10 c | 34.30± 0.10 a | 0.551 |
Protein Content (g/100 g) | 8.30 ± 0.30 a,b | 8.50 ± 0.50 a | 8.20 ± 0.40 b | 0.047 |
Titratable acidity (g/100 g) | 0.4 ± 0.00 b | 0.40 ± 0.10 b | 0.60 ± 0.10 a | 0.011 |
Enumeration of Yeasts and Molds (CFU/g) | <10 | <10 | <10 | |
Hardness | 937.30 ± 26.40 b | 966.30 ± 20.20 b | 1137.10 ± 18.30 a | <0.0001 |
Resilience | 37.80 ± 0.60 b | 34.90 ± 1.40 b | 44.80 ± 3.50 a | 0.004 |
Springiness | 76.70 ± 6.30 b | 87.20 ± 2.40 a | 87.90 ± 1.90 a | 0.027 |
Pyruvic acid (mg/L) | 214.67 ± 14.12 b | 130.50 ± 3.85 c | 242.94 ± 13.99 a | <0.0001 |
Acetic acid (mg/L) | 53.11 ± 2.38 b | 42.78 ± 4.07 c | 63.39 ± 1.69 a | <0.0001 |
Succinic acid (mg/L) | 45.18 ± 1.16 b | 33.88 ± 2.47 c | 52.90 ± 2.63 a | <0.0001 |
Lactic acid (mg/L) | 9.27 ± 1.12 b | 459.2 ± 11.99 c | 743.54 ± 5.80 a | <0.0001 |
Attributes/Bread Samples | A | B | C | D | E | F | G | H |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Flavor (Taste and smell) | ||||||||
Buttery | 0.969 | 0.405 | −0.984 | 0.91 | 0.353 | 0.308 | −0.944 | −1 |
Nutty | 0.715 | 0.808 | −0.941 | 0.58 | −0.163 | 0.743 | −0.652 | −0.875 |
Fresh | 0.465 | −0.796 | −0.056 | 0.615 | 0.992 | −0.854 | −0.54 | −0.213 |
Yeasty | −0.59 | 0.698 | 0.202 | −0.724 | −1 | 0.768 | 0.658 | 0.354 |
Sour | −0.896 | 0.289 | 0.631 | −0.96 | −0.877 | 0.386 | 0.931 | 0.745 |
Roast | −0.914 | −0.551 | 1 | −0.828 | −0.192 | −0.462 | 0.876 | 0.989 |
Sweet | −0.989 | −0.019 | 0.839 | −1 | −0.687 | 0.084 | 0.998 | 0.914 |
Appearance | ||||||||
Airy crumb | 0.961 | −0.114 | −0.759 | 0.995 | 0.778 | −0.216 | −0.981 | −0.852 |
Heterogenous | 0.957 | 0.445 | −0.991 | 0.89 | 0.31 | 0.351 | −0.928 | −1 |
Dry | 0.942 | 0.488 | −0.996 | 0.867 | 0.264 | 0.396 | −0.909 | −0.997 |
Doughy | 0.888 | −0.306 | −0.617 | 0.955 | 0.886 | −0.403 | −0.925 | −0.733 |
Dark | 0.828 | 0.69 | −0.986 | 0.716 | 0.015 | 0.612 | −0.776 | −0.947 |
Dry | 0.767 | 0.76 | −0.964 | 0.641 | −0.086 | 0.689 | −0.708 | −0.91 |
Blister | 0.727 | 0.797 | −0.947 | 0.594 | −0.145 | 0.731 | −0.665 | −0.884 |
Light | 0.602 | 0.887 | −0.879 | 0.451 | −0.309 | 0.835 | −0.53 | −0.793 |
Moist | 0.38 | 0.975 | −0.73 | 0.21 | −0.54 | 0.947 | −0.298 | −0.613 |
Big hole | 0.272 | 0.994 | −0.647 | 0.097 | −0.633 | 0.978 | −0.187 | −0.518 |
Small holes | 0.087 | 0.997 | −0.492 | −0.091 | −0.767 | 1 | 0.001 | −0.349 |
Overcooked | −0.398 | −0.971 | 0.743 | −0.229 | 0.523 | −0.941 | 0.317 | 0.628 |
Porous | −0.518 | 0.758 | 0.116 | −0.661 | −0.998 | 0.821 | 0.59 | 0.272 |
Compact | −0.703 | −0.818 | 0.935 | −0.566 | 0.18 | −0.754 | 0.638 | 0.867 |
Shiny | −0.79 | −0.736 | 0.973 | −0.669 | 0.05 | −0.662 | 0.734 | 0.925 |
Beige | −0.809 | −0.713 | 0.98 | −0.693 | 0.017 | −0.637 | 0.755 | 0.937 |
Dense crumb | −0.861 | −0.644 | 0.995 | −0.758 | −0.078 | −0.562 | 0.814 | 0.966 |
Greasy | −0.887 | −0.603 | 0.999 | −0.791 | −0.13 | −0.517 | 0.843 | 0.978 |
Smooth | −0.894 | 0.294 | 0.627 | −0.959 | −0.88 | 0.391 | 0.929 | 0.742 |
Developed | −0.992 | −0.288 | 0.955 | −0.954 | −0.466 | −0.188 | 0.977 | 0.99 |
Supple | −0.995 | −0.065 | 0.863 | −0.997 | −0.653 | 0.038 | 1 | 0.932 |
Texture | ||||||||
Spongy | 0.903 | −0.275 | −0.643 | 0.965 | 0.87 | −0.372 | −0.937 | −0.756 |
Crumbly | 0.811 | −0.443 | −0.495 | 0.902 | 0.944 | −0.532 | −0.859 | −0.626 |
Chewiness | 0.786 | −0.48 | −0.458 | 0.883 | 0.957 | −0.568 | −0.836 | −0.593 |
Hard | −0.904 | −0.572 | 1 | −0.813 | −0.167 | −0.485 | 0.863 | 0.985 |
Soft | −0.63 | 0.661 | 0.251 | −0.758 | −0.997 | 0.735 | 0.695 | 0.401 |
Elastic | −0.414 | −0.966 | 0.754 | −0.246 | 0.509 | −0.935 | 0.333 | 0.641 |
Firm | −0.671 | 0.62 | 0.302 | −0.791 | −0.992 | 0.698 | 0.733 | 0.449 |
Coarse | 0.775 | −0.495 | −0.443 | 0.875 | 0.962 | −0.582 | −0.827 | −0.579 |
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Limbad, M.; Gutierrez Maddox, N.; Hamid, N.; Kantono, K. Sensory and Physicochemical Characterization of Sourdough Bread Prepared with a Coconut Water Kefir Starter. Foods 2020, 9, 1165. https://doi.org/10.3390/foods9091165
Limbad M, Gutierrez Maddox N, Hamid N, Kantono K. Sensory and Physicochemical Characterization of Sourdough Bread Prepared with a Coconut Water Kefir Starter. Foods. 2020; 9(9):1165. https://doi.org/10.3390/foods9091165
Chicago/Turabian StyleLimbad, Mansi, Noemi Gutierrez Maddox, Nazimah Hamid, and Kevin Kantono. 2020. "Sensory and Physicochemical Characterization of Sourdough Bread Prepared with a Coconut Water Kefir Starter" Foods 9, no. 9: 1165. https://doi.org/10.3390/foods9091165