Pork as a Source of Omega-3 (n-3) Fatty Acids
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Pork in Human Diets
3. Pork Fatty Acid Composition
Fatty Acid | mg/100 g Tissue | % of Fatty Acids | ||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
LM | AM + E | AM + E + SF | AM +E + SF + SCF | SEM | LM | AM + E | AM + E + SF | AM + E + SF + SCF | SEM | |
C16:0 | 718 d | 1523 c | 3033 b | 5782 a | 227 | 24.3 | 24.8 | 25.6 | 25.6 | 0.5 |
C18:0 | 378 d | 822 c | 1740 b | 3438 a | 128 | 12.8 c | 13.3 bc | 14.6 ab | 15.2 a | 0.5 |
ΣSFA | 1147 d | 2458 c | 5001 b | 9659 a | 371 | 38.8 b | 39.9 ab | 42.2 a | 42.6 a | 0.9 |
C16:1-9c | 101 d | 191 c | 313 b | 519 a | 25.8 | 3.39 a | 3.09 a | 2.66 b | 2.29 c | 0.12 |
C18:1-9c | 1148 d | 2430 c | 4627 b | 9006 a | 357 | 38.6 | 39.4 | 39.2 | 39.9 | 0.8 |
C18:1-11c | 116 d | 295 c | 420 b | 667 a | 24.0 | 3.96 b | 4.82 a | 3.59 c | 2.97 d | 0.06 |
ΣMUFA | 1409 d | 3017 c | 5610 b | 10652 a | 415 | 47.4 | 49.0 | 47.5 | 47.2 | 0.9 |
C18:2n-6 | 189 d | 422 c | 822 b | 1656 a | 51.4 | 7.07 | 7.00 | 7.09 | 7.39 | 0.47 |
C18:3n-6 | 8.08 c | 13.8 c | 29.8 b | 66.5 a | 2.55 | 0.284 ab | 0.220 c | 0.258 bc | 0.295 a | 0.012 |
C20:2n-6 | 5.54 d | 15.5 c | 37.2 b | 85.9 a | 2.28 | 0.205 d | 0.262 c | 0.322 b | 0.385 a | 0.019 |
C20:3n-6 | 6.92 d | 10.1 c | 13.4 b | 21.5 a | 0.761 | 0.263 a | 0.166 b | 0.115 bc | 0.095 c | 0.020 |
C20:4n-6 | 46.0 d | 59.7 c | 65.8 b | 75.4 a | 2.03 | 1.77 a | 1.00 b | 0.580 c | 0.342 c | 0.120 |
C22:4n-6 | 1.35 d | 8.66 c | 11.8 b | 17.1 a | 0.59 | 0.048 d | 0.145 a | 0.102 b | 0.076 c | 0.005 |
Σn-6 | 249 d | 516 c | 950 b | 1856 a | 55.0 | 9.36 | 8.57 | 8.21 | 8.29 | 0.61 |
C18:3n-3 | 22.7 c | 41.3 c | 89.5 b | 186 a | 8.22 | 0.818 | 0.669 | 0.758 | 0.824 | 0.067 |
C20:3n-3 | 3.01 c | 5.75 c | 15.6 b | 36.7 a | 1.22 | 0.104 c | 0.092 c | 0.131 b | 0.162 a | 0.008 |
C20:5n-3 | 6.35 | 5.26 | 5.72 | 7.87 | 0.68 | 0.235 a | 0.0854 b | 0.0484 bc | 0.0349 c | 0.016 |
C22:3n-3 | 5.40 a | 0.918 c | 1.79 bc | 2.52 b | 0.50 | 0.204 a | 0.0134 b | 0.0141 b | 0.0108 b | 0.011 |
C22:5n-3 | 11.0 d | 15.4 c | 20.8 b | 30.4 a | 1.1 | 0.422 a | 0.257 b | 0.181 bc | 0.137 c | 0.029 |
C22:6n-3 | 5.45 c | 6.42 bc | 8.71 b | 12.7 a | 0.88 | 0.209 a | 0.109 b | 0.0773 b | 0.0581 b | 0.024 |
Σn-3 | 54.0 c | 75.1 c | 142 b | 276 a | 10.8 | 1.99 a | 1.22 b | 1.21 b | 1.22 b | 0.13 |
ΣPUFA | 306 d | 596 c | 1104 b | 2158 a | 66 | 11.5 | 9.88 | 9.52 | 9.63 | 0.7 |
TOTAL | 2922 d | 6140 c | 11,795 b | 22,577 a | 821 | 100 | 100 | 100 | 100 | 0 |
n-6/n-3 | 4.77 b | 7.00 a | 6.81 a | 6.76 a | 0.26 | |||||
PUFA/SFA | 0.301 | 0.250 | 0.228 | 0.228 | 0.025 |
4. Enriching Pork with n-3 Fatty Acids
4.1. Initial Efforts to Improve Pork Fatty Acid Composition
4.2. Efforts to Increase n-3 Fatty Acids in Pork
4.3. An Example of n-3 Enriched Pork and Post-Production Considerations
Fatty Acid | mg/100 g Tissue | % of Fatty Acids | ||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
LM | AM + E | AM + E + SF | AM + E + SF + SCF | SEM | LM | AM + E | AM + E + SF | AM + E + SF + SCF | SEM | |
C16:0 | 571 d | 1180 c | 2227 b | 4169 a | 152 | 22.1 a | 20.1 b | 20.5 b | 19.8 b | 0.3 |
C18:0 | 318 d | 678 c | 1326 b | 2545 a | 102 | 12.4 | 11.7 | 12.2 | 12.1 | 0.3 |
ΣSFA | 931 d | 1953 c | 3731 b | 7040 a | 265 | 36.0 a | 33.4 b | 34.3 b | 33.5 b | 0.6 |
C16:1-9c | 66.6 d | 113 c | 177 b | 295 a | 12.0 | 2.59 a | 1.94 b | 1.68 bc | 1.41 c | 0.10 |
C18:1-9c | 873 d | 1871 c | 3380 b | 6727 a | 218 | 33.8 a | 32.2 b | 31.7 b | 32.2 b | 0.5 |
C18:1-11c | 76.7 d | 196 c | 265 b | 419 a | 14.3 | 3.06 b | 3.39 a | 2.53 c | 2.01 d | 0.08 |
ΣMUFA | 1045 d | 2259 c | 3991 b | 7724 a | 256 | 40.7 a | 38.9 ab | 37.4 bc | 36.9 c | 0.6 |
C18:2n-6 | 225 d | 652 c | 1207 b | 2470 a | 55.0 | 9.68 b | 11.4 a | 11.5 a | 11.9 a | 0.34 |
C18:3n-6 | 6.38 d | 12.8 c | 25.1 b | 53.0 a | 1.54 | 0.26 | 0.223 | 0.236 | 0.253 | 0.011 |
C20:2n-6 | 6.40 d | 24.7 c | 47.1 b | 106 a | 2.75 | 0.27 b | 0.437 a | 0.454 a | 0.509 a | 0.025 |
C20:3n-6 | 5.86 c | 7.83 bc | 10.0 b | 15.9 a | 0.79 | 0.26 a | 0.141 b | 0.099 c | 0.076 c | 0.012 |
C20:4n-6 | 28.2 c | 34.3 b | 36.6 b | 42.3 a | 1.9 | 1.35 a | 0.626 b | 0.372 c | 0.205 c | 0.06 |
C22:4n-6 | 1.23 c | 3.87 b | 5.27 b | 7.95 a | 0.56 | 0.05 ab | 0.067 a | 0.049 ab | 0.037 b | 0.007 |
Σn-6 | 266 d | 723 c | 1306 b | 2643 a | 59 | 11.6 | 12.7 | 12.5 | 12.7 | 0.4 |
C18:3n-3 | 145 d | 614 c | 1290 b | 2800 a | 71 | 5.76 d | 10.6 c | 12.1 b | 13.4 a | 0.30 |
C20:3n-3 | 21.5 d | 82.2 c | 166 b | 381 a | 11.6 | 0.85 c | 1.42 b | 1.55 b | 1.82 a | 0.053 |
C20:5n-3 | 23.3 d | 31.9 c | 38.8 b | 55.3 a | 1.7 | 1.08 a | 0.573 b | 0.385 c | 0.268 c | 0.05 |
C22:3n-3 | 2.48 b | 2.27 b | 3.06 b | 4.75 a | 0.40 | 0.10 a | 0.038 b | 0.029 b | 0.023 b | 0.005 |
C22:5n-3 | 21.1 d | 39.5 c | 59.7 b | 102 a | 3.0 | 0.95 a | 0.705 b | 0.575 c | 0.491 c | 0.038 |
C22:6n-3 | 3.85 d | 8.13 c | 10.6 b | 16.2 a | 0.77 | 0.18 a | 0.146 b | 0.105 c | 0.079 c | 0.011 |
Σn-3 | 217 d | 778 c | 1569 b | 3360 a | 85 | 8.94 d | 13.5 c | 14.7 b | 16.1 a | 0.39 |
ΣPUFA | 486 d | 1506 c | 2883 b | 6018 a | 143 | 20.6 c | 26.3 b | 27.4 ab | 28.9 a | 0.7 |
TOTAL | 2519 d | 5788 c | 10,683 b | 20,881 a | 627 | 100 | 100 | 100 | 100 | 0 |
n-6/n-3 | 1.28 a | 0.935 b | 0.850 c | 0.788 c | ||||||
PUFA/SFA | 0.581 b | 0.796 a | 0.807 a | 0.869 a |
5. Practical Barriers Limiting n-3 Pork Development and Entry into the Food Supply
5.1. The Call for n-3 Enriched Meat Unfulfilled to Date
5.2. Why Production of n-3 Enriched Pork Has Not Been Adopted
5.2.1. Visibility
5.2.2. Challenges along the Value Chain
6. Strategies to Encourage Production and Market Availability of n-3 Fatty Acid Enriched Pork
7. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Dugan, M.E.R.; Vahmani, P.; Turner, T.D.; Mapiye, C.; Juárez, M.; Prieto, N.; Beaulieu, A.D.; Zijlstra, R.T.; Patience, J.F.; Aalhus, J.L. Pork as a Source of Omega-3 (n-3) Fatty Acids. J. Clin. Med. 2015, 4, 1999-2011. https://doi.org/10.3390/jcm4121956
Dugan MER, Vahmani P, Turner TD, Mapiye C, Juárez M, Prieto N, Beaulieu AD, Zijlstra RT, Patience JF, Aalhus JL. Pork as a Source of Omega-3 (n-3) Fatty Acids. Journal of Clinical Medicine. 2015; 4(12):1999-2011. https://doi.org/10.3390/jcm4121956
Chicago/Turabian StyleDugan, Michael E.R., Payam Vahmani, Tyler D. Turner, Cletos Mapiye, Manuel Juárez, Nuria Prieto, Angela D. Beaulieu, Ruurd T. Zijlstra, John F. Patience, and Jennifer L. Aalhus. 2015. "Pork as a Source of Omega-3 (n-3) Fatty Acids" Journal of Clinical Medicine 4, no. 12: 1999-2011. https://doi.org/10.3390/jcm4121956