Synergistic Drive Between Local Knowledge and Landscape Design: Construction and Empirical Evidence of Landscape Design In-Situ Evaluation System for Forest Health Bases

Abstract

This study explores the intersection of landscape design and ecosystem services, emphasising context-sensitive design and the integration of indigenous and local knowledge (ILK) in forest health bases. Current challenges include disconnects between design practices and local cultural identity, as well as insufficient ecological integration, necessitating systematic approaches that harmonise ecological functions with sociocultural values. While existing research prioritises health benefit assessments, the role of ILK in long-term sustainability remains underexplored. To address this gap, we developed a multidimensional evaluation system integrating ecological, cultural, community, and human health indicators. Using a hybrid Delphi–Analytic Hierarchy Process (AHP), we identified 33 core indicators through literature word-frequency analysis. These indicators were refined via two rounds of expert surveys involving 48 interdisciplinary scholars and empirically validated at the Yuping Mountain Forest Health Base in Sichuan, China. The case study achieved an overall score of 4.371 (Grade I), with “Site location” (weight 0.064) and “Maintenance of the human landscape” (weight 0.056) as pivotal factors. ILK integration enhanced ecological resilience and community cultural engagement. Quantitative data revealed strong performance in five senses of experience (weight 0.056), though cultural resource utilisation requires refinement. The innovation of this study is that it is the first to construct an ILK-driven assessment framework to achieve the deep integration of scientific quantification and local wisdom. The study provides a decision-making tool that is both humanistic and scientific, in order to promote the synergistic development of human health, ecological protection, and cultural heritage and to help sustainable landscape design practice.

1. Introduction

Contemporary landscape design struggles to integrate social and ecological systems effectively [1]. Freeman emphasises that the economic value of resource–environment systems lies in their sustained contribution to human well-being through ecosystem services [2]. From an economic perspective, scholars such as Bockstael further suggest that the valuation of ecosystem functions needs to be closely linked to human well-being [3]; that is, the value of local ecosystem services depends on an individual’s subjective assessment of their well-being [4]. In this context, forest health—a growing sector—relies on ecosystem services to deliver health benefits while optimising ecological functions through scientific management, creating a sustainable “human health–ecological conservation” feedback loop.

Indigenous and local knowledge (ILK) offers critical insights for the sustainable management of complex ecosystems [5]. We adopt the definition of the Intergovernmental Science-Policy Platform on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services (IPBES) [6], which encompasses the multidimensional wisdom systems of Traditional Ecological Knowledge (TEK), Cultural Knowledge (CK), Local Knowledge (LK), Traditional Knowledge (TK), Folk Knowledge (FK), and Indigenous Ecological Knowledge (IEK) [7]. These systems not only provide methodological support for ecosystem management, but also address limitations of purely scientific approaches [8,9,10]. Therefore, the integration of local knowledge systems in the landscape design of forest health bases becomes the key to enhancing ecological benefits and social identity.

Existing research primarily evaluates empirical outcomes of forest health bases. For instance, Japan’s 2006 certification system established environmental design and health metrics. Zhi Chen [11] and Mehri Mahmoudkhani et al. [12] analysed how different design elements can enhance the recreational function by means of experimental control and environmental evaluation model construction. Sujin Park [13] and Kwang-Hi Park’s [14] team, on the other hand, used psychological scales to quantify the effects of forest environments on the recovery of cancer patients and highly stressed people. Eun Young Park [15] and Annika Kangas [16], among others, analysed how forms of social interaction, such as participatory planning and group activities, can contribute to psychological recovery and enhanced engagement in recreation. Zhi Zhang [17] explored the impact of landscape facility design on the wellness experience, analysing how the frequency of use and configuration of facilities meet the needs of different visitors. Despite these advances, the long-term impact of ILK on visitor engagement remains overlooked, resulting in designs disconnected from local culture and undermining operational sustainability.

In urban planning and environmental design, multi-criteria decision-making (MCDM) [18] methods serve an important function in integrating multiple dimensions such as ecology, society, and aesthetics [19]. In recent years, methods such as TOPSIS, VIKOR, DEMATEL, and BWM have been widely applied in similar studies. As distance-based ranking approaches [20], TOPSIS [21] and VIKOR [22] are commonly used for alternative selection and conflict resolution, offering advantages such as high computational efficiency and structural simplicity. However, this study focuses on the quantification of weight values. DEMATEL [23] is used to reveal the causal relationship networks among factors; however, this study does not involve complex causal relationships. The Best–Worst Method (BWM) [24] can reduce the number of expert comparisons and improve decision-making efficiency, making it suitable for rapid decisions involving a limited number of criteria. However, this study adopts the Analytic Hierarchy Process (AHP) due to the need for multi-level analysis. Overall, this study selects the Analytic Hierarchy Process (AHP) as the tool for weight calculation for the following reasons: AHP, as one of the most well-established MCDM methods, offers advantages such as a clear structure, ease of operation, and high transparency. It decomposes complex decision problems into a multi-level hierarchical structure and determines the importance of criteria through pairwise comparisons [25]. Compared with ranking methods like TOPSIS or VIKOR, which rely on ideal solutions, AHP emphasises hierarchical weight evaluation based on expert judgement and includes an internal consistency check mechanism, thereby significantly enhancing the scientific validity and reliability of the evaluation results.

To solve the above problems, we extracted the core elements in authoritative literature through word frequency analysis [26] to form a set of elements for the in-situ evaluation of forest health base landscape design. The Delphi–AHP method is a combination of the Delphi survey and the classical AHP method [27], in which the Delphi method is used for further screening of the content of the elemental set, forming a collection of 33 indicators, as well as the evaluation criteria for each of the indicators. The Delphi method is effective in solving the complex composition of the evaluation of the indicators of this programme and facilitates hierarchical structure construction [28]. The AHP method is used in the subsequent stage of the evaluation model construction, which is used to determine the indicator weights; that is, the weight of each indicator requires multi-criteria decision-making analysis [29]. After that, the evaluation level is determined based on the Likert scale [9], which, in turn, completes the construction of the evaluation system for the in-situ nature of the landscape design of the forest health base. Taking Yuping Mountain Forest Health Base in Sichuan Province as an empirical object, the study found that its landscape design is highly compatible with the local knowledge system, and its widely acclaimed real-life public opinion, which verifies the feasibility and practical value of the evaluation system. A comprehensible framework is illustrated in Figure 1, which presents the research design process.

2. Extraction of Evaluation Indicators

2.1. Scope of Indicator Extraction

This study integrates indigenous and local knowledge (ILK) into forest health base design through a dual analysis of policy documents and academic literature. At the level of standard documents, the 31 materials screened (including 17 local standards, 3 industry standards, and 11 group standards) explicitly require the planning of recreational activities in combination with local resources such as traditional Chinese medicine, forest culture, and regional folklore. The conditions concerning base resources accounted for the largest proportion, followed by the content of base planning (Appendix A). At the level of academic literature, an analysis of 32 recent core papers from CNKI on “site-specific forest health base design” revealed dominant themes in industrial development, community engagement, and cultural preservation. However, limited studies explicitly address ILK’s practical impact on design, underscoring the novelty of this research (Appendix B).

2.2. Analysis of Data Extraction Results

The word frequency statistics of the standard documents and academic literature show that the direction of attention to the in-situ nature design of forest health bases in the two is generally convergent, but there is a difference in the depth of application of ILK. The academic literature has a higher proportion of attention paid to health benefits and cultural identity. Numerous scholars have put forward the benefits of the forest health industry for the social economy, health environment, and people’s well-being. Most of the discussions on the forest health industry remain theoretical, and there is a lack of operational paths; we believe that this phenomenon stems from the fact that the dissemination of the concept of forest health at the social level is very far removed from foreign countries.

There are more regulations and discussions on the in-situ design dimension, and standard documents guide ILK more from a macro direction, lacking details on the systematic incorporation of local knowledge. It is worth noting that the appearance of keywords such as cultural environment and non-heritage protection highlights the consensus on ILK as a core element of local design (Figure 2). However, previous research has not sufficiently discussed the response to constraints and community synergy mechanisms, and there is an urgent need to optimise the adaptability of design solutions through the integration of local knowledge.

2.3. Comparative Analysis of Forest Health Bases in the Context of In-Situ Design Element Clustering Solutions

2.3.1. Elements of the Resource Dimension for Physical Form

In the resource dimension in terms of physical form, natural ecological environment and cultural landscape are the key carriers of ILK integration. The standard document advocates the direct service of health functions through forest resource planning, but ignores the guidance of local knowledge on sustainable resource utilisation. The academic literature emphasises the role of forest landscape resources as a “medicine guide”, and suggests combining plant aromatherapy with ecological taboos in ILK to enhance the depth of experience. Practical applications include thermal regulation through vernacular architectural techniques and resolving land-use conflicts via community-based tenure systems (Figure 3A).

2.3.2. Elements of the Resource Dimension for Non-Physical Forms

The differentiation value of ILK is particularly significant in the resource dimension for non-physical forms. In forest health activities, sports and diet are hard indicators in forest experience, so the standard document focuses on the standardised output of sports culture and diet culture, but weakens regional characteristics. The academic research advocates the construction of cultural IP through ethnic folklore and non-heritage skills, and advocates the combination of traditional medical knowledge and modern forestry to enhance the scientific and cultural identity of health services. Regarding the contemporary development part, scholars have emphasised the scientific nature of this activity of forest health, combining the professional conclusions of medicine and forestry, and applying scientific empirical evidence to the design means so that the design results have a sense of intelligence, reflect current science, and comply with the development needs of current society (Figure 3B).

2.3.3. Elements of the Infrastructure Work Dimension

In infrastructure work, ILK bridges the gaps between policy and academic implementation. While standard frameworks focus on routine elements, two critical yet overlooked factors emerge: response to constraints and reasons for the design. Standard documents and academic literature rarely address these issues, though constraints are inevitable in practice. Effective constraint resolution requires community co-management models rather than rigid land-use planning, while design intent must prioritise local needs over developer agendas. ILK-driven participatory design demonstrably enhances functional alignment with user requirements (Figure 3C).

2.3.4. Design Creation Dimension Elements

In-situ design needs to balance policy safety with cultural appropriateness. Standard documents emphasise hard targets such as medical emergency facilities, but ILK can optimise the cultural expression of facilities. Academic research proposes integrating local ecological monitoring knowledge through intelligent landscape systems to achieve the dual goals of serviceability and cultural heritage (Figure 3D).

2.3.5. Ergonomics Dimension Elements

The human body dimension needs to go beyond the superficial design of “localised experience”. In the ergonomics dimension, the standard document focuses on the experience of local characteristics and lacks detailed care guidance for healthy people, while the traditional ecological knowledge in ILK can guide visitors toward self-regulation. Scholars enhance pleasure through spiritual identity design to reflect the deep impact of local knowledge on physical and mental healing (Figure 3F).

2.3.6. Communal Dimension Element

In the community dimension, ILK is a link to coordinate ecological protection and industrial development. The standard document pays more attention to spatial coordination and ecological protection, taking into account the long-term development of forestry. The academic literature advocates empowering community operations with ILK, transforming public space into a vehicle for symbiosis between cultural dissemination and economic benefits (Figure 3E).

3. Construction of Evaluation Index System

3.1. Indicator Selection

3.1.1. Screening Process

• Screening of indicators

The Delphi method was used for the initial screening of indicators, focusing on the depth of local knowledge (ILK) embedded in the design of forest health bases. A total of 35 interdisciplinary experts were invited to participate in two rounds of scoring for 57 candidate indicators via an online questionnaire. The invited Delphi panellists were all specialists from relevant fields, including landscape architecture, urban planning, forest health, human geography, traditional ecological knowledge, and ecological design. All experts held at least a master’s degree and had more than ten years of professional research- or project-based experience. The expert selection process strictly adhered to the anonymity and iterative feedback principles of the Delphi method, with each round achieving a response rate exceeding 70%, thereby ensuring the breadth and scientific rigour of the results. The first round of screening was based on the comprehensive scoring of the indicators based on their relevance to in-situ design, and those with scores below 65% were eliminated. The second round of consensus was to supplement the ILK operational definitions with expert feedback for the controversial indicators; ultimately, 33 core indicators were retained (Figure 4). It is worth emphasising that the final set of 33 indicators identified through the Delphi method was compared with existing literature. Most indicators—such as “Accessibility” and “Flora and Fauna Conservation Design”—have parallels in evaluation studies related to urban parks or forest health. At the same time, this study introduces novel indicators reflecting local knowledge, such as “Sense of experience of regional specialities” and “Maintenance of the human landscape”, highlighting its originality and theoretical contribution (

Table 1. Novel indicators proposed in this study.

General Indicator Layer	Novel Indicators Proposed in This Study (⬤ Novel Indicators)
Ecological construction (C1)
Planning layout (C2)
Use methods in line with local circumstances (C3)	⬤
Analysis of the current situation (C4)
Functional requirements satisfaction (D1)
Site location (D2)
Reasons for the design (D3)	⬤
Healthy trail route selection (E1)	⬤
Trail form (E2)
Trail features (E3)
Walkway paving (E4)
Design of the forest phase (F1)
Therapeutic tree design (F2)	⬤
Native tree species (F3)
Forest health care (G1)
Local forest movements (G2)
Service facilities (H1)
Healthy facilities (H2)
Transport facilities (H3)
Flora and fauna conservation design (Y1)
Maintenance of the human landscape (Y2)	⬤
Intelligent medical emergency detection (Y3)	⬤
Base operations (J1)
Industrial economic development (J2)
Public space vitality (J3)	⬤
Community involvement (J4)	⬤
Safety (K1)
Accessibility (K2)
Ecological friendliness (K3)
Health effects (L1)	⬤
Five senses of experience (L2)
Sense of experience of regional specialities (M1)	⬤
Pleasure (M2)	⬤

).

2.

Determination of evaluation criteria for indicators

Based on the results of the Delphi consensus, the material form dimension, non-material form dimension, infrastructure work dimension, in-situ design dimension, communal dimension, and ergonomics dimension, which were organised in the previous paper, were integrated in six sections of logical relationships. To refine the evaluation criteria for each indicator, the same group of experts was invited once again to complete a differentiated rating scale questionnaire for the 33 indicators within the framework. From a professional point of view, they chose the relevant dimensions that need to be considered for each indicator in the process of designing forest health bases in the field in the four sub-dimensions of local characteristics, and selected the primary and secondary criteria based on the importance, so as to ensure the mobility and diversity of the choices (Figure 5).

3.

Classification and interpretation of indicators

The evaluation system adopts a four-tier hierarchy (Objective → Criteria → Factors → Indicators). It is structured across design and implementation phases, with the latter addressing micro-level human needs and macro-level community impacts to reflect site-specific outcomes. The factor layer details the specific steps of the design process and focuses on the beneficiaries and related benefits of the use process (

Table 2. Evaluation index system for landscape in-situ design of forest health bases.

Standard Price Level	Factor Level	General Indicator Layer	Explanation of the Content of the Evaluation of the Indicator
In-situ Design (A)	General layout (C)	Ecological construction (C1)	Whether the construction approaches and techniques comply with ecological development principles and relevant policy requirements
		Planning layout (C2)	Whether the layout of space function and flow line is reasonable
		Use methods in line with local circumstances (C3)	Whether the design is relevant to local characteristics and conditions
		Analysis of the current situation (C4)	On-site condition assessment and analysis of the surrounding environment
	Pre-production planning (D)	Functional requirements satisfaction (D1)	Whether the functions of the landscape design meet the needs of the corresponding nodes, healthy groups and local needs
		Site location (D2)	Whether the site selection for the forest health base is reasonable
		Reasons for the design (D3)	Whether the project was designed and constructed taking into account actual needs
	Trail system planning (E)	Healthy trail route selection (E1)	Whether the trail alignment is safe and integrates with the topography of the site
		Trail form (E2)	Whether the trail is varied, interesting, and has local character
		Trail features (E3)	Whether the trail functions to meet multiple needs
		Walkway paving (E4)	Whether the trail paving is environmentally friendly, safe, nourishing, and has local character
	Plant design (F)	Design of the forest phase (F1)	Whether the plants are aesthetically pleasing and form a visual treat
		Therapeutic tree design (F2)	Whether the plants have good healing properties
		Native tree species (F3)	Whether the advantages of local tree species are fully utilised
	Healthy project design (G)	Forest health care (G1)	Whether the landscape has been designed with the relevant use requirements for a forest medicine project in mind
		Local forest movements (G2)	Whether the landscape design has taken into account the requirements for the use of the forest for sports activities
	Facility design (H)	Service facilities (H1)	Whether the accessibility, practicality and locality of service facilities meet the needs of users
		Healthy facilities (H2)	Whether the matching, practicability and locality of the healthy programme of the healthy facilities meet the needs of users
		Transport facilities (H3)	Accessibility of traffic flow, convenience and safety of barrier-free design, rationality of parking facilities, and effectiveness of the signage system in wayfinding.
	Protective design (Y)	Flora and fauna conservation design (Y1)	Whether the design incorporates specific ecological measures—such as habitat conservation and vegetation selection—to address the living habits of animals and plants, thereby ensuring their safe growth and development.
		Maintenance of the human landscape (Y2)	Whether the design focuses on the preservation of cultural and natural resources such as local historical sites and cultural heritage
		Intelligent medical emergency detection (Y3)	Designed for use with or without a medical emergency safety monitoring system
Community and human health (B)	Economic benefit (J)	Base operations (J1)	Whether the designed forest healthy base has good publicity, professional staffing and other status of operation and management
		Industrial economic development (J2)	Benefits of design for the local economy, environment, and indigenous people
		Public space vitality (J3)	Whether the design use brings vitality to local public life
		Community involvement (J4)	Respect for community intent and participation during the design process and at the time of completion of the design
	Space benefits (K)	Safety (K1)	Whether the design meets health and safety requirements
		Accessibility (K2)	Whether the design ensures physical spatial accessibility between road systems and facilitates human access to natural ecological spaces
		Ecological friendliness (K3)	Whether the design respects the ecological environment and meets environmental performance
	Behavioural use effects (L)	Health effects (L1)	Whether users achieve the desired health benefits after passing through the landscape space of an in-situ-designed forest health base
		Five senses of experience (L2)	Users’ perception of the five senses of sight, sound, smell, touch and taste in the landscape space of the geographically designed forest health base
	Spiritual identity (M)	Sense of experience of regional specialities (M1)	Users experience a typical sense of local character in the use of the designed forest health base
		Pleasure (M2)	Designed to create a pleasant feeling when used

).

4.

Standardisation of evaluation indicators

Indicators derived from the multi-stakeholder qualitative assessments in Table 2 required quantitative standardisation for integration into a unified evaluation system. Using a five-point Likert scale (5 = Strongly Agree, 4 = Agree, 3 = Neutral, 2 = Disagree, 1 = Strongly Disagree), acceptance levels for each indicator were scored, completing the standardisation process (

Table 3. Ranking of landscape in-situ design evaluation system for forest health bases.

Level	Score	Representative Content
I	4–5	The landscape of the forest health base is constructed well in-situ and is highly satisfactory.
II	3–4 (exclude)	The landscape of the forest health base is constructed well in-situ and basically meets the demand for use, but local optimisation is still needed.
III	2–3 (exclude)	The landscape of the forest health base is generally well constructed in-situ, but some of the construction and use effects do not meet needs and require further optimisation.
IV	1–2 (exclude)	The landscape of the forest health base is poorly constructed in-situ and fails to meet the basic needs of users.

).

3.1.2. Construction of Evaluation Process

• Construction of a judgement matrix

The indicator evaluation process is more complex. In order to ensure the scientific nature and effectiveness of the calculation results, This study used SPSS Pro (https://www.spsspro.com) for data analysis to construct the evaluation index system model, as shown in Figure 6.

2.

Indicator Weight Calculation

(1) Constructing Judgement Matrices

The evaluation indexes constructed in this paper are complex due to their elements and have the characteristics of multi-objective synthesis. In order to solve the complexity of the evaluation problem, the study adopts the 1–9 scale proposed by Saaty to quantify the relative importance among factors. As shown in

Table 4. The 1–9 fundamental scale of relative importance proposed by Saaty.

Scale	Significance
1	Indicates that the two factors are equally important in comparison.
3	Indicates that one factor is slightly more important than the other.
5	Indicates that one factor is moderately more important than the other.
7	Indicates that one factor is strongly more important than the other.
9	Indicates that one factor is extremely more important than the other.
2, 4, 6, 8	Intermediate values between the above adjacent judgements.
Reciprocal	If the judgement of factor i compared to factor j is denoted as F(ij), then the judgement of j compared to i is F(ji) = 1/F(ij).

, each pair of indicators is compared using a scale where “1” denotes “equal importance”, “2” denotes “slightly more important”, “3” denotes “moderately more important”, “4” denotes “strongly more important”, and “5” denotes “extremely more important”. The values 2, 4, 6, and 8 serve as intermediate refinements between adjacent scale levels. The reciprocals of values from 1 to 9 represent the inverse importance in pairwise comparisons. As a common decision-making method, the advantage of AHP is that it can simplify the decision-making process through quantisation, decompose complex decision-making problems, and study the internal relationship of its influencing factors. For decision-making problems with multi-objective, multi-indexed, or unstructured characteristics [30], the indexes are compared one by one by consulting professionals with a master’s degree or above in related disciplines, and the relationship of importance between the indexes is calculated and obtained.

(2) Hierarchical Weighting and Consistency Validation

Hierarchical single ordering refers to determining the order of importance of all indicators related to the indicator at this level according to the Likert scale for an indicator in the previous level. After that, the initial and combined weights of the factors at each level are calculated to generate the hierarchical total ranking. In the calculation process, all of the judgement proofs should pass the one-time test to ensure the logical consistency of thinking in judging the importance of the relationship between indicators and reduce the judgement error caused by the interference of subjective factors.

$$C.I.={\displaystyle \frac{\lambda \max -n}{n-1}}$$

(1)

$$R.I.={\displaystyle \frac{{\lambda }^{\prime }\max -n}{n-1}}$$

(2)

Here, λmax represents the maximum eigenvalue. A consistency ratio (CR) < 0.1 validates the hierarchical ranking. If CR exceeds this threshold, the judgement matrix must be revised until CR < 0.1 is achieved. CR is calculated as the ratio of the consistency index (CI) to the random consistency index (RI).

$$CR={\displaystyle \frac{CI}{RI}}$$

(3)

In the above equation, the CI value is given by the following equation:

$$CI={\displaystyle \frac{\lambda \max -n}{n-1}}$$

(4)

RI is the average stochastic consistency index of the judgement matrix, and the RI values of order 1–11 can be referred to in

Table 5. Consistency indicator RI values for judgement matrices of order 1–9 (AHP).

n	1	2	3	4	5	6	7	8	9	10	11
RI	0	0	0.52	0.89	1.12	1.26	1.36	1.41	1.46	1.49	1.52

.

CI = 0, perfect consistency; CI close to 0, better consistency results; the larger the CI, the stronger the inconsistency.

(3) Expert Questionnaire for the Judgement Matrix of Indicator Importance

In this study, 15 experts were invited to conduct AHP scoring. After constructing the pairwise judgement matrices, the consistency index (CI) and consistency ratio (CR) were calculated and compared with the corresponding random index (RI) based on matrix size, in order to derive the priority weights at each level. The final results were obtained using the arithmetic mean of individual expert rankings. All CR values in this study were less than 0.10, meeting the logical consistency requirements of the AHP method. Given the complexity of indicator evaluation, the geometrically averaged judgement matrices and corresponding consistency test tables for each level are presented in Appendix C.

3.

Determination of the relative weights of each indicator in the criterion layer and the indicator layer

The judgements from 15 expert questionnaires were weighted and tested for consistency. The geometric mean method was used to process the single-level rankings, and the final weights were obtained through arithmetic averaging. Figure 6 illustrates the hierarchical priority weights of the forest health baseline evaluation system for specific sites.

3.2. Analysis of Evaluation Weights

The weight analysis of the evaluation system reveals that site-specific forest health base design prioritises measurable impacts on community well-being and individual health outcomes (Figure 7). The design-in-place indicator for standard tier landscaping is weighted lower than the health and community benefit indicators, reflecting the framework’s emphasis on people-centred and purpose-driven solutions. The top three factor-level indicators are Pre-production planning > Protective design > General layout, focusing on the design-in-place dimension, emphasising the importance of comprehensive site analysis and environmentally sensitive resource use.

The weight value of the indicator layer brings more intuitive design guidance: Site location > Maintenance of the human landscape > Health effects > Sense of experience of regional specialities > Reasons for the design. From the comparative results, it can be seen that the site selection of the base is the root of the locality, and the local forest characteristics determine the fundamental effect of forest health. Humanistic landscape and regional characteristics are important factors that determine the difference between a forest health base and other bases, i.e., the key consideration of locality. Further analysis of indicator weights within the site-specific design dimension reveals the following priority: Site location > Maintenance of the human landscape > Reasons for the design > Use methods in line with local circumstances > Therapeutic Tree Design. Unlike urban landscape design, forest health base planning demands context-driven and conservation-oriented approaches strictly guided by site conditions. While urban designs emphasise aesthetic fluidity and formal diversity, forest health landscapes prioritise natural integrity, reflecting the inherent ecological identity of local environments.

3.3. Operation of the Indicator System

The system can be applied to all domestic forest health base landscapes in the evaluation of the effect of in-situ nature. The detailed application process is presented in Figure 8, totalling five steps. Through the evaluation questionnaire, each index of the landscape design is rated. Each index is multiplied by its corresponding weight value, and then the total score is calculated. Finally, according to the evaluation levelabove, the scores are divided accordingly to obtain a positive or negative evaluation of the effectiveness of the design of the localisation in the practical application.

4. Results of Evaluation Practice: Landscape In-Situ Design of Yuping Mountain Forest Health Base

4.1. Subject of Evaluation

Located in Hongya County, Sichuan, the Yuping Mountain Forest Health Base thrives under a mid-subtropical humid climate and 98% forest coverage. Its “multidimensional strengths” stem not only from ecological richness, but also from the active preservation of indigenous and local knowledge (ILK). The base integrates traditional ecological practices and regional cultural symbols to foster a nature–culture symbiotic system. For instance, trails are designed using historical forestry techniques to minimise ecological disruption, while health programmes incorporate traditional herbal medicine and music therapy, demonstrating ILK’s scientific contributions to therapeutic efficacy (Figure 9).

4.2. Results of the Overall Topographical Evaluation of Yuping Mountain

According to the evaluation system, the total score of Yuping Mountain is 4.371 (Grade I), indicating that the overall effect of its in-situ nature design is excellent, but there is significant room for improvement (Figure 10). According to the analysis, the index score of human resources is weaker in the overall score, and the index of natural resources is excellent. The evaluation results reveal that the local design needs to go beyond “natural resource dependence” and enhance cultural identity and recreational adhesion through the dynamic translation of ILK and community synergy, so as to improve the intimacy and interaction between human beings and nature.

4.3. Individual Factor Locality Evaluations

4.3.1. In-Situ Design

• General layout

The base strictly adheres to the ecological red line, but ILK integration is insufficient. When the Yuping Mountain base was used as a forest farm in the last century, excessive reclamation led to a serious loss of natural forest resources, such that the existing forests are highly regularised. The builders’ awareness of ecological protection is not only reflected in the signage system, but also in the siting of the construction site and the layout of the overall base. The healing trail that the planners designed in the field through the measurement of their feet has strong practicality and rationality. However, it is regrettable that part of the beautiful landscape at the base has not been fully utilised, and no in-depth exploration and excavation has been carried out.

2.

Pre-production planning

The mean score of site location in the pre-planning stage is higher than the overall mean, which proves that the public thinks that the natural resources of Yuping Mountain are suitable for forest health, and the transportation is relatively convenient, so the public’s willingness to visit this place for therapeutic activities is high. However, the public is sceptical about the existing functional support and the design intention and practicality of the various links of the base. Some of the functional nodes do not perform the corresponding functions, such as the lack of utilisation of water resources for health and wellness under various types of terrain.

3.

Trail system planning

Yuping Mountain’s trail planning system has a natural advantage in the design. During the re-establishment of the forest, reforestation left many reforestation trails, including the most exciting part of the route based on the original uphill trails. The healing trail selection scored highly, 4.419 points, which also shows that the trail form is varied, but the development of each trail for the corresponding diversity of functions is not yet comprehensive. All four trails are worthy of study for the materials chosen to pave them, either willow cedar and gravel with a flat surface, or paved with more natural wood.

4.

Plant design

The forest landscape design capitalises on distinct seasonal variations. Spring features azaleas, cherries, and michelia; autumn showcases sweetgum, osmanthus, and bishopwood; summer highlights magnolias, crape myrtles, roses, and hibiscus; winter transitions to wintersweet and cedar, creating year-round scenic diversity. The canopy is primarily composed of imported Japanese plants, which naturally purify the air through abundant phytoncides. However, understorey economic development remains underutilised, with limited cultivation of lower-layer vegetation. Native species are underutilised in landscape design, reducing regional ecological authenticity.

5.

Healthy project design

The forest health programmes demonstrate excellent therapeutic efficacy through stress-reducing activities such as Zen tea ceremonies, Tai Chi, yoga, and Baduanjin (traditional Chinese exercise). Yuping Mountain further prioritises evidence-based medical practices, offering structured programmes like 10-day medical trials and 3-day wellness retreats. Recreational offerings cater to diverse demographics: rainbow slide experiences for all ages, all-terrain vehicle courses for young adults, and forest mazes for children. Educational programmes for school groups are also integrated. While these programmes are more advanced than those at other domestic bases, field surveys indicate limited engagement in full wellness programmes, with most visitors prioritising recreational tourism.

6.

Facility design

Facility design scores consistently exceed average ratings. Analysis by Beijing Forestry University researchers on Yushui Valley Trail facilities reveals moderate spacing: waste bins (avg. 91.9 m between units), restrooms (377.8 m), and seating (51.9 m). The pre-design of the healthy facilities meets the current needs, and the meditation space, therapeutic service station, and other facilities are well equipped, but the testing base station before conducting forest health is far away from the healing trail mileage. The looped trail system around the base centre ensures good accessibility, correlating with strong user satisfaction ratings.

7.

Protective design

Protective design measures received comparatively lower evaluations than other aspects of the base. There are no special protection measures for plants and animals in the base, and it is mostly the warning effect of the marking system, but the management system of “one tree, one code, one card” has been implemented for the ancient and famous trees. The design results show a lack of in-depth exploration of the cultural landscape, and no measures to maintain the cultural landscape were observed during the health and wellness activities. Intelligent medical emergency systems, including supervision, alarms, and emergency rescue, have been implemented. Half of the sites in the forest have been installed with monitoring facilities and an alarm system has also been placed, but the signs of the system are not obvious enough to satisfy the urgent needs of people, and the distance between the huts for emergency rescues are too long. In addition, some maintenance-oriented protective designs have been overlooked.

4.3.2. Community and Human Health

• Economic benefits

The base operates with a professional health and wellness specialist team and a well-organised management system that includes regular staff training. However, maintenance and renovation efforts remain insufficient, particularly in terms of trail upkeep and visitor reception capacity, where staffing levels lag behind operational demands. Since its development, Yuping Mountain has revitalised public spaces, with active community participation enhancing local income levels. Strategic collaborations with research institutions—such as Nanjing Forestry University and Southwest Agricultural University—provide scientific rigour and evidence-based improvements, positioning the base as a national leader in forest health innovation.

2.

Space benefits

The base’s safety protection facilities are more complete but still need to be improved. The base’s safety tips are sufficient, and the professionals’ awareness of safety guidance is strong. The overall terrain of the base, the selection of walkway lines, and the plant configuration all meet the safety requirements. Base traffic planning is reasonable, being located 147 kilometres from Chengdu and 55 kilometres from Leshan, with Meishan and Ya’an being even closer. The traffic within the base combines internal and external traffic, forming an internal traffic system with roads, lanes, walkways and traffic management facilities. The base adopts a large number of naturalised treatments, reduces the felling of original plants, and ensures the green visibility and richness of the plant community in the form of replacement.

3.

Behavioural use effects

For the indicator of health effects, 11 people strongly agreed and 17 people agreed that the expected health effects had been achieved through the landscape space of the geographically designed forest health base. For the indicator of five senses of experience, 21 people strongly agreed and 11 people agreed that the landscape space of the geographically designed forest health base provides sufficient experience of the five senses: sight, hearing, smell, touch, and taste.

4.

Spiritual identity

For the indicator of the sense of experience of regional specialities, 9 people strongly agreed that they experience typical feelings of local characteristics when using the designed forest health base, 17 people agreed, and 6 people said it was average. For the indicator of the sense of pleasure, 20 people strongly agreed that they had a pleasant feeling when using the planned and designed base space, 11 people agreed, and 1 person said it was average.

5. Discussion

5.1. Key Findings and Theoretical Implications

This study establishes an evaluation framework for context-specific landscape design in forest health resorts using the Delphi–AHP method, highlighting the critical role of ILK in achieving ecological sustainability and cultural authenticity. Empirical analysis at Yuping Mountain demonstrates that integrating ILK enhances both ecological resilience and human health outcomes. Notably, in the hierarchical analysis of the indicator system, the high weights of “site location” and “Maintenance of the human landscape” emphasised that ILK is both a design base and a cultural catalyst. This finding is consistent with Freeman’s [2] theory of the value of ecosystem services, but further reveals how ILK can transform abstract ecological functions into quantifiable sociocultural benefits, which has not yet been fully explored in previous studies focusing on physiological indicators.

Unlike Japan’s forest therapy certification system and Zhi Chen’s health impact model [11], which prioritise quantifiable health metrics, our approach initially overlooked the role of ILK in sustaining long-term engagement. The results of this study, on the other hand, show a clear contrast: Yuping Mountain scored lower on the indicators related to the utilisation of cultural resources, indicating the limitations of static cultural displays compared to dynamic ILK practices. This discrepancy underscores the necessity for ILK-informed participatory frameworks to prevent cultural tokenism—a pitfall critically examined in Annika Kangas’ community engagement research [16].

5.2. Mechanistic Linkages Between ILK and Sustainable Design

The success of ILK-driven designs lies in their ability to bridge traditional wisdom with modern scientific frameworks. For instance, incorporating nanmu trees into plant arrangements leverages both their scientifically validated air-purifying properties and the cultural symbolism of “warding off harm”, generating positive ecological and psychological impacts simultaneously. This dual functionality aligns with the Intergovernmental Science-Policy Platform on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services’ (IPBES) call to integrate ILK into biodiversity management. It demonstrates ILK’s potential as a “cultural–ecological interface” that balances human needs with ecosystem functions.

5.3. Practice and Policy Implications

The proposed evaluation system offers policymakers and designers three actionable guidelines. (1) Pre-design phase: ILK-oriented resource surveys can reduce ecological conflicts. (2) Implementation phase: Optimising the use of indigenous processes can reduce dependence on energy-intensive infrastructure while enhancing cultural authenticity. (3) Post-operation phase: Dynamic ILK databases, such as seasonal herb use documentation, can facilitate adaptive management.

5.4. Global Relevance and Transferability

While the study focuses on China’s forest health base context, the proposed ILK-driven evaluation framework demonstrates high transferability to other biocultural regions. For example, the inclusion of localised therapeutic tree species or participatory trail planning could inspire similar initiatives in community-based ecotourism planning in Southeast Asia [31], Indigenous healing landscapes in Canada, or medicinal forest projects in Latin America.

Furthermore, the methodological structure—combining Delphi consensus with AHP weighting—is widely recognised across disciplines and can be easily adapted to evaluate ecosystem services, cultural heritage integration, or participatory infrastructure planning in various socioecological systems [32]. This enhances the framework’s relevance for an international readership seeking adaptable, locally grounded evaluation tools.

5.5. Limitations and Future Research Directions

Despite the contributions of this study, the following limitations exist. (1) Regional limitations: this study was only validated in a single case at Mt. Yuping, which may limit its applicability to non-forest or culturally diverse areas. (2) Expert sample limitation: the weight of Delphi expert panel members does not adequately represent the Aboriginal population, which may affect the practical application of the ILK indicator. (3) Indicator subjectivity: Indicators such as “spiritual identity” still need more in-depth psychometric validation to reduce cultural bias.

To address these shortcomings, we believe that follow-up research could be conducted in the following ways. (1) Expanding case diversity: testing the framework in different natural resource areas or urban fringe environments to assess its adaptability. (2) Enhance participatory methods: directly invite Aboriginal groups to participate in the Delphi process to optimise the ILK indicator system. (3) Conduct long-term research: track the long-term impacts of ILK on ecological restoration and community well-being to fill the temporal data gaps in current research.

6. Conclusions

This study constructed a Delphi–AHP-based methodology for evaluating the in-situ landscape design of forest health sites and integrated indigenous and local knowledge (ILK) to bridge the critical gap between ecological sustainability and cultural authenticity. The findings indicate that ILK-based design significantly enhances ecological resilience and human well-being. The empirical study of Yuping Mountain further suggests that prioritising “site location” (0.064) and “Maintenance of the human landscape” (0.056) can ensure that the design is in line with the local ecological and cultural context, thus avoiding homogenisation.

The main contribution of this study lies in its methodological innovation: the hybrid Delphi–AHP framework systematically embeds ILK in the quantitative decision-making process, providing a replicable model that combines scientific rigour and cultural sensitivity. This approach advances the theory of sustainable tourism by demonstrating how ILK can transform abstract ecosystem services into measurable sociocultural benefits, a dimension that has often been neglected in previous studies focusing only on physiological indicators. At the practical level, the evaluation system provides actionable guidance for policy makers and designers. For example, ILK-based participatory planning can help resolve land use conflicts, while a dynamic ILK database can facilitate the adaptive management of health programmes. These strategies not only enhance ecological integrity, but also promote long-term visitor engagement through culturally resonant experiences.

Future research should further expand the applicability of the system in different ecosystems and integrate emerging technologies. Additionally, long-term studies to track the impacts of ILK on community well-being and ecological restoration are essential to validate its long-term effectiveness. This study redefines sustainable landscape design as a synergistic interactive process between human health, cultural continuity, and environmental stewardship by utilising ILK as an ecological safeguard and cultural necessity.