Erucic Acid (22:1n-9) in Fish Feed, Farmed, and Wild Fish and Seafood Products
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Feed, Fish and Seafood Samples
2.2. Method of Fatty Acid Analysis
2.3. Feeding Trial with Atlantic Salmon
3. Results
3.1. Content of Erucic Acid in Fish Feed Ingredients and Fish Feed
3.2. Transfer from Feed to Fish
3.3. Erucic Acid in Seafood
3.4. Human Consumption
4. Discussion
5. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Conflicts of Interest
References
- Friedt, W.; Snowdon, R. Oilseed Rape. In Oil Crops; Vollmann, J., Rajcan, I., Eds.; Springer New York: New York, NY, USA, 2010; pp. 91–126. [Google Scholar]
- Wendlinger, C.; Hammann, S.; Vetter, W. Various concentrations of erucic acid in mustard oil and mustard. Food Chem. 2014, 153, 393–397. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Bremer, J.; Norum, K.R. Metabolism of very long-chain monounsaturated fatty acids (22:1) and the adaptation to their presence in the diet. J. Lipid Res. 1982, 23, 243–256. [Google Scholar] [PubMed]
- EFSA. Scientific opinion on erucic acid in feed and food. EFSA J. 2016, 14, 1–173. [Google Scholar]
- Houtsmuller, U.M.T.; Struijk, C.B.; Van der Beek, A. Decrease in rate of ATP synthesis of Isolated rat heart mitochondria induced by dietary erucic acid. Biochim. Biophys. Acta. Lipids Lipid Metab. 1970, 218, 564–566. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Ackman, R.G. Fatty Acids in Fish and Shellfish. In Fatty Acids in Foods and Their Health Implications; Chow, C.K., Ed.; CRC Press, Tylor & Francis Group: London, UK, 2008. [Google Scholar]
- Sjømatdata. Available online: https://sjomatdata.hi.no/#search/ (accessed on 30 September 2018).
- Folch, J.; Lees, M.; Sloane-Stanley, G.H. A simple method for the isolation and purification of total lipids from animal tissues. J. Biol Chem, 1957, 226, 497–509. [Google Scholar]
- Lie, Ø.; Lambertsen, G. Fatty-acid composition of glycerophospholipids in 7 tissues of cod (Gadus morhua), determined by combined high-performance liquid-chromotography and gas-chromotography. J. Chromatogr Biomed. Appl. 1991, 565, 119–129. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Sissener, N.H.; Sanden, M.; Torstensen, B.E.; Waagbø, R.; Stubhaug, I.; Rosenlund, G. High dietary 18:2n-6 does not inhibit elongation and desaturation of 18:3n-3 to EPA and DHA in Atlantic salmon. Aquac. Nutr. 2017, 23, 899–909. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Sissener, N.H.; Torstensen, B.E.; Stubhaug, I.; Rosenlund, G. Long-term feeding of Atlantic salmon in seawater with low dietary long-chain n-3 fatty acids affects tissue status of brain, retina and red blood cells. Br. J. Nutr. 2016, 115, 1919–1929. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Julshamn, K.; Brenna, J.; Holland, R.; Tanner, S. Plasma source mass spectrometry—New developments and applications. R Soc. Chem. 1999, 241, 167–172. [Google Scholar]
- Sanden, M.; Hemre, G.; Måge, A.; Lunestad, B.; Espe, M.; Lundebye, A.; Amlund, H.; Ørnsrud, R. Program for overvåking av fiskefôr. Årsrapport Prøver Innsamlet 2016 2017, 1–51. Available online: https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Monica_Sanden/publication/322597959_Overvaking_av_fiskefor_Arsrapport_for_prover_innsamlet_i_2016/links/5a61e3d6aca272a1581770f6/Overvaking-av-fiskefor-Arsrapport-for-prover-innsamlet-i-2016.pdf (accessed on 30 September 2018).
- Lundebye, A.-K.; Lock, E.-J.; Rasinger, J.D.; Nøstbakken, O.J.; Hannisdal, R.; Karlsbakk, E.; Wennevik, V.; Madhun, A.S.; Madsen, L.; Graff, I.E.; et al. Lower levels of Persistent Organic Pollutants, metals and the marine omega 3-fatty acid DHA in farmed compared to wild Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar). Environ. Res. 2017, 155, 49–59. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Torstensen, B.E.; Frøyland, L.; Ørnsrud, R.; Lie, Ø. Tailoring of a cardioprotective muscle fatty acid composition of Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar) fed vegetable oils. Food Chem. 2004, 87, 567–580. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Ytrestøyl, T.; Aas, T.S.; Åsgård, T. Utilisation of feed resources in production of Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar) in Norway. Aquaculture 2015, 448, 365–374. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Thomassen, M.S.; Røsjø, C. Different fats in feed for salmon: Influence on sensory parameters, growth rate and fatty acids in muscle and heart. Aquaculture 1989, 79, 129–135. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Bell, J.; McVicar, A.; Park, M.; Sargent, J.R. High dietary linoleic-acid affects the fatty-acid compositions of individual phospholipids from tissues of Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar)—Association with stress susceptibility and cardiac lesion. J. Nutr. 1991, 121, 1163–1172. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Seierstad, S.L.; Seljeflot, I.; Johansen, O.; Hansen, R.; Haugen, M.; Rosenlund, G.; Frøyland, L.; Arnesen, H. Dietary intake of differently fed salmon; the influence on markers of human atherosclerosis. Eur. J. Clin. Invest. 2005, 35, 52–59. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Seierstad, S.L.; Svindland, A.; Larsen, S.; Rosenlund, G.; Torstensen, B.E.; Evensen, Ø. Development of intimal thickening of coronary arteries over the lifetime of Atlantic salmon, Salmo salar L., fed different lipid sources. J. Fish. Dis. 2008, 31, 401–413. [Google Scholar]
- Remø, S.C.; Hevrøy, E.M.; Olsvik, P.A.; Fontanillas, R.; Breck, O.; Waagbø, R. Dietary histidine requirement to reduce the risk and severity of cataracts is higher than the requirement for growth in Atlantic salmon smolts, independently of the dietary lipid source. Br. J. Nutr. 2014, 111, 1759–1772. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Sissener, N.H. Are we what we eat? Changes to the feed fatty acid composition of farmed salmon and its effects through the food chain. J. Exp. Biol. 2018, 221, jeb161521. [Google Scholar] [PubMed]
- Skåre, J.U.; Brantsæter, A.L.; Frøyland, L.; Hemre, G.I.; Knutsen, H.K.; Lillegaard, I.T.L.; Torstensen, B. Benefit-risk assessment of fish and fish products in the Norwegian diet—An update. Opinion of the Scientific Steering Committee of the Norwegian Scientific Committee for Food Safety. VKM Report. 2014, 4, 1–293. [Google Scholar]
- EFSA. Scientific opinion on dietary reference values for fats, including saturated fatty acids, polyunsaturated fatty acids, monounsaturated fatty acids, trans fatty acids, and cholesterol. EFSA J. 2010, 8, 197. [Google Scholar]
- Imamura, F.; Lemaitre, R.; King, I.; Song, X.; Steffen, L.; Folsom, A.; Siscovick, D.; Mozaffarian, D. Long-chain monounsaturated fatty acids and incidence of congestive heart failure in 2 prospective cohorts. Circulation 2013, 127, 1512–1521. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Nettleton, J.; Steffen, L.; Loehr, L.; Rosamond, W.; Folsom, A. Incident heart failure is associated with lower whole-grain intake and greater high-fat dairy and egg intake in theatherosclerosis risk in communities (aric) study. J. Am. Diet. Assoc. 2008, 108, 1881–1887. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Mozaffarian, D.; Bryson, C.; Lemaitre, R.; Burke, G.; Siscovick, D. Fish intake and risk of incident heart failure. J. Am. Coll. Cardiol. 2005, 45, 2015–2021. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Matsumoto, C.; Matthan, N.R.; Lichtenstein, A.H.; Gaziano, J.M.; Djoussé, L. Red blood cell MUFAs and risk of coronary artery disease in the Physicians’ Health Study. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 2013, 98, 749–754. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Li, Z.; Zhang, Y.; Su, D.; Lv, X.; Wang, M.; Ding, D.; Ma, J.; Xia, M.; Wang, D.; Yang, Y.; et al. The opposite associations of long-chain versus very long-chain monounsaturated fatty acids with mortality among patients with coronary artery disease. Heart 2014, 100, 1597–1605. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Singh, R.B.; Niaz, M.A.; Sharma, J.P.; Kumar, R.; Rastogi, V.; Moshiri, M. Randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial of fish oil and mustard oil in patients with suspected acute myocardial infarction: The Indian experiment of infarct survival. Cardiovasc. Drugs Ther. 1997, 11, 485–491. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Rastogi, T.; Reddy, K.S.; Vaz, M.; Spiegelman, D.; Prabhakaran, D.; Willett, W.C.; Stampfer, M.J.; Ascherio, A. Diet and risk of ischemic heart disease in India. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 2004, 79, 582–592. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
Year | Matrix | N | Mean | Min. | Max. |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
2004 | 1 | 1.0 | 1.0 | 1.0 | |
2005 | 6 | 0.9 | 0.7 | 1.1 | |
2006 | Fish silage | 8 | 1.1 | 1.0 | 1.2 |
2007 | 5 | 0.9 | 0.5 | 1.3 | |
2008 | 2 | 1.0 | 1.0 | 1.0 | |
2007 | 1 | 0.1 | 0.1 | 0.1 | |
2008 | Fish meal | 4 | 0.6 | 0.1 | 1.3 |
2004 | 2 | 0.1 | 0.1 | 0.2 | |
2005 | Vegetable oil | 3 | 0.8 | 0.2 | 1.5 |
2006 | (uspecified) | 4 | 0.2 | 0.0 | 0.5 |
2007 | 2 | 0.8 | 0.7 | 0.8 | |
2008 | 1 | 0.7 | 0.7 | 0.7 | |
2004 | 3 | 0.6 | 0.2 | 0.8 | |
2005 | Rapeseed oil | 9 | 0.8 | 0.2 | 2.4 |
2006 | (canola) | 7 | 1.3 | 0.0 | 3.2 |
2007 | 7 | 0.7 | 0.3 | 0.9 | |
2008 | 7 | 0.7 | 0.2 | 2.7 | |
2004 | 6 | 1.4 | 0.1 | 2.4 | |
2005 | Fish oil | 10 | 0.6 | 0.1 | 1.8 |
2006 | 9 | 0.7 | 0.1 | 2.1 | |
2007 | 10 | 0.7 | 0.2 | 1.5 | |
2008 | 6 | 0.7 | 0.1 | 1.1 | |
2006 | 30 | 0.8 | 0.0 | 1.7 | |
2008 | 10 | 0.8 | 0.3 | 1.0 | |
2012 | Fish feed | 13 | 0.6 | 0.2 | 1.1 |
2013 | 69 | 0.5 | 0.2 | 1.0 | |
2014 | 73 | 0.5 | 0.2 | 0.9 | |
2015 | 20 | 0.4 | 0.2 | 0.9 | |
2016 10 | 20 | 0.3 | 0.2 | 0.5 |
Year | N | Mean | Min. | Max. |
---|---|---|---|---|
Fish Feed | ||||
2012 | 13 | 152 | 29 | 317 |
2013 | 69 | 138 | 22 | 250 |
2014 | 73 | 146 | 56 | 333 |
2015 | 20 | 113 | 53 | 181 |
2016 5 | 20 | 096 | 52 | 151 |
Species | Mean Value mg Erucic Acid | % TDI | Max Value mg Erucic Acid | % TDI |
---|---|---|---|---|
Farmed salmon | 179 | 43 | 358 | 85 |
Wild salmon | 141 | 34 | 290 | 69 |
North sea herring | 271 | 65 | 411 | 98 |
Mackerel | 429 | 102 | 601 | 143 |
© 2018 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
Share and Cite
Sissener, N.H.; Ørnsrud, R.; Sanden, M.; Frøyland, L.; Remø, S.; Lundebye, A.-K. Erucic Acid (22:1n-9) in Fish Feed, Farmed, and Wild Fish and Seafood Products. Nutrients 2018, 10, 1443. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu10101443
Sissener NH, Ørnsrud R, Sanden M, Frøyland L, Remø S, Lundebye A-K. Erucic Acid (22:1n-9) in Fish Feed, Farmed, and Wild Fish and Seafood Products. Nutrients. 2018; 10(10):1443. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu10101443
Chicago/Turabian StyleSissener, Nini H., Robin Ørnsrud, Monica Sanden, Livar Frøyland, Sofie Remø, and Anne-Katrine Lundebye. 2018. "Erucic Acid (22:1n-9) in Fish Feed, Farmed, and Wild Fish and Seafood Products" Nutrients 10, no. 10: 1443. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu10101443