Viruses

14 pages, 5195 KB

Open AccessArticle

Burden of Malaria and Dengue Across Global, Asian, and Chinese Populations Based on GBD 2021 Data: A Quantitative Assessment of Importation Risks to China

by Ning Jiang, Weichao Liu, Huifang Zhou, Xianlin Zhan, Xue’e Dai, Wei Yan and Jianhua Yin

Viruses 2026, 18(6), 690; https://doi.org/10.3390/v18060690 - 22 Jun 2026

Viewed by 408

Abstract

Background: Malaria and dengue continue to pose significant public health challenges in Asia, with differing temporal trends and regional distributions. However, comparative and long-term assessments of their disease burden and future trajectories remain limited. Methods: Using Global Burden of Disease Study 2021 data, [...] Read more.

Background: Malaria and dengue continue to pose significant public health challenges in Asia, with differing temporal trends and regional distributions. However, comparative and long-term assessments of their disease burden and future trajectories remain limited. Methods: Using Global Burden of Disease Study 2021 data, we estimated age-standardized incidence rates (ASIR), disability-adjusted life years (DALYs-ASR), and estimated annual percentage changes (EAPCs) for global, Asian, and Chinese populations by age, sex, and socio-demographic index (SDI). Correlations with SDI and population density were analyzed, and an importation risk index for China was developed. Future trends to 2030 were projected using Bayesian age-period-cohort modeling. Findings: From 1990 to 2021, dengue ASIR increased globally and in China, particularly in middle-SDI regions, whereas malaria ASIR and DALYs-ASR declined substantially, with the most pronounced reductions observed in China. Dengue DALYs-ASR were highest among children under five, while incidence peaked in adolescents; malaria burden was concentrated in young children and young adults. Sex-specific differences were observed, with higher dengue incidence in females but greater DALY rates in males. Geographically, Southeast Asian countries contributed most to the estimated importation risk for both diseases. Projections indicate continued increases in dengue burden through 2030, alongside further declines in malaria. Conclusions: Malaria and dengue exhibit divergent epidemiological patterns across Asia, with declining malaria burden but rising dengue incidence. These findings highlight the need for differentiated control strategies, strengthened regional collaboration, and enhanced surveillance of cross-border transmission. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Preparation for the Next Potential Pandemic—Chikungunya, Dengue, Zika and Other Viruses 2026)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

1 pages, 127 KB

Open AccessCorrection

Correction: Bulatov et al. Camelpox Virus in Western Kazakhstan: Assessment of the Role of Local Fauna as Reservoirs of Infection. Viruses 2024, 16, 1626

by Yerbol Bulatov, Sholpan Turyskeldy, Ruslan Abitayev, Abdurakhman Usembai, Zhanna Sametova, Zhanat Kondybayeva, Alina Kurmasheva, Dana Mazbayeva, Asselya Kyrgyzbayeva, Kamshat Shorayeva, Zhanat Amanova and Dariya Toktyrova

Viruses 2026, 18(6), 689; https://doi.org/10.3390/v18060689 - 22 Jun 2026

Viewed by 243

Abstract

In the published publication [...] Full article

14 pages, 5904 KB

Open AccessCommunication

First Report of Orthonairovirus songlingense in Haemaphysalis concinna Ticks from Russia

by Mikhail Y. Kartashov, Valentina Y. Kurushina, Kirill A. Svirin, Alina S. Zheleznova, Tatyana V. Tregubchak, Alexander P. Agafonov and Anastasia V. Gladysheva

Viruses 2026, 18(6), 688; https://doi.org/10.3390/v18060688 - 22 Jun 2026

Viewed by 336

Abstract

High-throughput sequencing methods have made it possible to identify numerous novel tick-borne viruses that are potentially pathogenic to humans. Among these, Songling virus (Orthonairovirus songlingense, SGLV) has been associated with febrile illness in patients following tick bites in China, but its [...] Read more.

High-throughput sequencing methods have made it possible to identify numerous novel tick-borne viruses that are potentially pathogenic to humans. Among these, Songling virus (Orthonairovirus songlingense, SGLV) has been associated with febrile illness in patients following tick bites in China, but its geographic distribution outside China remains largely unexplored. In this study, we aimed to detect SGLV circulation in ticks across Asian Russia, focusing on regions bordering China. A total of 3444 adult ticks representing six species were collected from 170 locations across 11 regions during the summer of 2024. SGLV RNA was detected in Haemaphysalis concinna ticks, with 11 positive specimens yielding an SGLV RNA prevalence rate of 2.2%. Positive ticks were found in four regions, with the highest positivity rate (5.8%) recorded in Amur Oblast, which directly borders China. The detection of SGLV in the Republic of Altai represents the westernmost record of this virus to date. Full-length nucleoprotein-coding sequences obtained for all Russian isolates revealed up to 1.2% nucleotide divergence. Phylogenetic analysis confirmed that all Russian SGLV isolates belong to Orthonairovirus songlingense, with the Altai SGLV isolate showing genetic similarity to a human-derived Chinese SGLV isolate. Co-infections with Rickettsia heilongjiangensis were detected in four SGLV-positive ticks, highlighting the potential for simultaneous pathogen transmission. These findings establish the first evidence of SGLV circulation in Russia across a wide geographic range and underscore the need for differential diagnosis of febrile illnesses following tick bites in this region. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Emerging and Re-Emerging Viral Zoonoses)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

14 pages, 1491 KB

Open AccessArticle

Epidemiological and Virological Characteristics of H9N2 Avian Influenza Virus in Jiangsu Province, China, 2024

by Xue Gao, Huiyan Yu, Na Zhang, Liqi Liu, Jing Tong, Xian Qi, Haodi Huang, Shenjiao Wang, Zi Li, Yangguang Du and Liguo Zhu

Viruses 2026, 18(6), 687; https://doi.org/10.3390/v18060687 - 20 Jun 2026

Viewed by 598

Abstract

H9N2 avian influenza viruses inherently carry cross-species transmission potential, making continuous surveillance critical for pandemic prevention. This study focused on monitoring the 2024 H9N2 epidemic in Jiangsu Province’s external environment, analyzing its molecular evolution and receptor binding properties, assessing cross-species transmission and pandemic [...] Read more.

H9N2 avian influenza viruses inherently carry cross-species transmission potential, making continuous surveillance critical for pandemic prevention. This study focused on monitoring the 2024 H9N2 epidemic in Jiangsu Province’s external environment, analyzing its molecular evolution and receptor binding properties, assessing cross-species transmission and pandemic risks, and investigating serological antibody levels across different human populations. Environmental samples were collected from live poultry markets, farms, slaughterhouses, and bird habitats across Jiangsu, screened via quantitative PCR (qPCR), with positive samples used for virus isolation and whole-genome sequencing. Receptor binding properties were tested by hemagglutination assay, and H9N2 antibody levels were measured in 370 occupationally exposed individuals and 240 non-exposed individuals using hemagglutination inhibition (HI) assays. Among the 5779 collected samples, 6.89% tested H9N2-positive, and 12 strains belonging to the Eurasian lineage Y280-like clade G57 genotype were successfully isolated. All strains carried the HA-Q226L mutation, with 11 showing preferential binding to human α-2,6 receptors and one strain possessing dual receptor binding capability. Internal genes harbored mammalian adaptation mutations, and M2 proteins contained mutations conferring complete resistance to amantadine-class antiviral drugs. Serological tests revealed antibody positive rates of 4.05% in exposed populations and 2.5% in non-exposed populations, with no statistically significant difference between groups. These findings confirm that Jiangsu’s circulating H9N2 viruses have acquired human receptor preference and mammalian adaptation, posing silent infection and pandemic risks. Enhanced surveillance and the development of candidate vaccine stockpiles are strongly recommended. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Animal Viruses)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

16 pages, 3401 KB

Open AccessArticle

Analysis of Epidemiological and Molecular Characteristics of Bocavirus in Guangzhou

by Yifan Pan, Pingting Zhu, Yiyun Chen, Jingjing Zhang, Yanhui Liu, Shuiping Hou, Anna Wang, Xinwei Wu, Pengzhe Qin and Lan Cao

Viruses 2026, 18(6), 686; https://doi.org/10.3390/v18060686 - 20 Jun 2026

Viewed by 367

Abstract

Objective: We aimed to elucidate the epidemiological characteristics and co-infection status of HBoV in Guangzhou and to investigate the potential recombination events and alterations in antigenic properties among circulating HBoV strains. Methods: Utilizing respiratory specimens collected from patients at sentinel surveillance hospitals in [...] Read more.

Objective: We aimed to elucidate the epidemiological characteristics and co-infection status of HBoV in Guangzhou and to investigate the potential recombination events and alterations in antigenic properties among circulating HBoV strains. Methods: Utilizing respiratory specimens collected from patients at sentinel surveillance hospitals in Guangzhou between August 2023 and December 2025, multiplex pathogen detection was performed. We describe the temporal and demographic distribution of HBoV in Guangzhou and determine its co-infection patterns. Subsequent sequence analysis focused on identifying potential recombination events and characterizing antigenic properties. Results: The epidemiological features of HBoV in Guangzhou exhibited a primary epidemic peak around the autumn season, followed closely by a secondary peak. HBoV infection was predominantly observed in children under three years of age. Co-infections with rhinovirus and parainfluenza virus were common. Whole-genome sequencing yielded 15 complete HBoV genome sequences. Recombination analysis and verification suggested potential recombination events in two of these sequences. A comparative analysis of the antigenic characteristics of one identified recombinant strain, GZ-2024-20891, against its putative parental strains and domestic prevalent strains revealed potential alterations in its antigenic characteristic. Conclusions: Bocavirus is highly prevalent among young children under 3 years of age, with a secondary peak following the main epidemic peaks around autumn in Guangzhou. Genetic recombination and potential antigenic alteration were detected in bocavirus. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Human Virology and Viral Diseases)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

16 pages, 8204 KB

Open AccessArticle

Acquired HIV-1 Drug Resistance and Molecular Transmission Networks in Zhongwei, Ningxia, China

by Youping Duan, Subinuer Mutalifu, Ziyang Luo, Yufeng Li, Xiaohong Zhu, Jianxin Pei, Dongzhi Yang and Zhonglan Wu

Viruses 2026, 18(6), 685; https://doi.org/10.3390/v18060685 - 18 Jun 2026

Viewed by 468

Abstract

Objective: This retrospective cross-sectional study aimed to characterize HIV-1 genotypes, assess drug resistance, and analyze molecular transmission networks in Zhongwei City to inform prevention strategies. Methods: Plasma samples were collected from antiretroviral therapy (ART)-treated patients (2007–2024) with viral load ≥ 200 copies/mL. HIV-1 [...] Read more.

Objective: This retrospective cross-sectional study aimed to characterize HIV-1 genotypes, assess drug resistance, and analyze molecular transmission networks in Zhongwei City to inform prevention strategies. Methods: Plasma samples were collected from antiretroviral therapy (ART)-treated patients (2007–2024) with viral load ≥ 200 copies/mL. HIV-1 pol was amplified by nested PCR; successful sequences were genotyped by maximum likelihood (ML) (IQ-TREE, TVM+F+I+G4, 1000 bootstrap). Drug resistance (DR) was interpreted using Stanford HIV Drug Resistance Database (HIVDB) v9.0; detected mutations represent acquired drug resistance (ADR). Pairwise genetic distances (GD) (TN93 model) were calculated; transmission networks were constructed in Cytoscape 3.10.3. Results: 75 sequences were obtained. Males (84.00%), and heterosexual transmission (64.00%) predominated. CRF07_BC (46.67%) and CRF01_AE (38.67%) were the major subtypes; the overall ADR rate was 40.00%, mainly NNRTIs-associated (30.67% of all participants, including 16.00% single-class NNRTIs and 14.67% dual-class NRTIs-NNRTIs). Network inclusion rate was 40.00% of the 75 sequences; CRF07_BC showed higher betweenness centrality (p = 0.028), while CRF01_AE and CRF85_BC showed higher closeness centrality (p < 0.001). Occupation significantly affected network enrollment (p ≤ 0.05). Conclusion: HIV-1 subtypes are diverse with high ADR. CRF07_BC may act as a transmission bridge, whereas CRF01_AE and CRF85_BC exhibit faster potential spread. Baseline DR testing and network-guided interventions are recommended. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Human Virology and Viral Diseases)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

30 pages, 7445 KB

Open AccessConference Report

Report from the 9th Italian Society for Virology (SIV-ISV) 2025 Annual Meeting

by Anna De Filippis, Manuela Donalisio, Anna Luganini, Francesca Caccuri, Francesca Esposito, Nicole Grandi, Carla Zannella, Luisa Rubino, Enzo Tramontano, Gabriele Vaccari, Massimiliano Galdiero and Arnaldo Caruso

Viruses 2026, 18(6), 684; https://doi.org/10.3390/v18060684 - 18 Jun 2026

Viewed by 568

Abstract

The 9th National Congress of the Italian Society for Virology (SIV-ISV), entitled “One Virology—One Health”, took place in Turin at the Centro Congressi Lingotto from 22 to 24 June 2025. The meeting highlighted recent multidisciplinary and translational developments in virology, with a strong [...] Read more.

The 9th National Congress of the Italian Society for Virology (SIV-ISV), entitled “One Virology—One Health”, took place in Turin at the Centro Congressi Lingotto from 22 to 24 June 2025. The meeting highlighted recent multidisciplinary and translational developments in virology, with a strong focus on the integration of the One Health perspective. Major themes included viral emergence and surveillance, genomic sequencing and bioinformatics, virus–host interactions, viral immunology and vaccines, structural and physical virology, environmental and food virology, zoonoses and animal infections, diagnostics and antiviral therapy, virus-based biotechnology and plant virology. The Congress aimed to: (i) bring together clinicians, basic researchers, veterinarians, environmental microbiologists, bioinformaticians, public-health professionals and industry to share methodologies and best practices; (ii) provide an interactive scientific environment promoting discussion and collaboration between senior investigators and trainees through plenaries, joint society sessions, invited talks, oral communications selected from abstracts, poster sessions, and mentoring panels; and (iii) identify priorities and inspire new research directions at the interface of human, animal and environmental health. More than 400 participants from national and international institutions attended the meeting, featuring distinguished plenary speakers, joint sessions with global networks, and numerous presentations of original unpublished data. This report summarizes the meeting’s scientific highlights, cross-disciplinary discussions, and proposed actions to strengthen One Health surveillance, computational infrastructures, and translational applications of viral biology. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Virology in Italy 2025—9th National Congress of the Italian Society for Virology)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

17 pages, 515 KB

Open AccessReview

Determinants of Dengue Serotype Shifts: A Narrative Multifactorial Perspective

by Jeyanthi Suppiah, Sakshaleni Rajendiran, Siti Aishah Rashid, Nurulhusna Ab Hamid, Murni Maya Sari Zulkifli and Rozainanee Mohd Zain

Viruses 2026, 18(6), 683; https://doi.org/10.3390/v18060683 - 18 Jun 2026

Viewed by 587

Abstract

Dengue Virus (DENV) circulates as four antigenically distinct serotypes whose dominance fluctuates over time in many endemic regions, a phenomenon known as serotype shift that is frequently associated with large outbreaks and increased disease severity. This review, through a synthesis of epidemiological, virological, [...] Read more.

Dengue Virus (DENV) circulates as four antigenically distinct serotypes whose dominance fluctuates over time in many endemic regions, a phenomenon known as serotype shift that is frequently associated with large outbreaks and increased disease severity. This review, through a synthesis of epidemiological, virological, immunological, entomological, and environmental evidence, observes that serotype shift likely arises from the interaction of multiple determinants rather than solely from viral evolution, with population immunity playing a central role. The accumulation of serotype-specific herd immunity, together with short-lived cross-protection and Antibody-Dependent Enhancement (ADE), reshapes population susceptibility and creates ecological space for heterologous serotypes with higher transmission potential. The synthesis of global dengue studies indicates that these immune dynamics interact with viral genetic diversity, vector competence, climate variability, and human factors such as demography, socioeconomic status, population density and mobility to drive cyclical and sometimes abrupt changes in serotype dominance. Notably, the review indicates that serotype changes often precede or coincide with more clinical severity and patterns of outbreaks, with direct implications for the process of forecasting outbreaks, vaccine performance, and preparedness to respond with appropriate health measures. On the whole, this review confirms the opinion that the change of dengue serotype occurrence becomes a consequence of interconnected biological and ecological processes involved in the transmission of dengue serotype shifts in hyperendemic areas. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Pathogenesis and Persistence in Flavivirus Infections: Mechanisms, Biomarkers, and Clinical Implications)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

13 pages, 1532 KB

Open AccessArticle

Membrane-Anchored and Sequence-Oriented Antiviral Activity of Fusion-Inhibitory Lipopeptides Derived from the SARS-CoV-2 Spike Glycoprotein S2 Subunit

by Rosaria Arvia, Michael Quagliata, Andrea Di Santo, Maria Alfreda Stincarelli, Lorenzo Pacini, Anna Maria Papini, Paolo Rovero and Simone Giannecchini

Viruses 2026, 18(6), 682; https://doi.org/10.3390/v18060682 - 18 Jun 2026

Viewed by 506

Abstract

Background: SARS-CoV-2 fusion inhibitory peptides represent promising antiviral candidates. Recently, a 19-mer peptide (PN19)—designed in our laboratory to mimic the internal fusion peptide of the SARS-CoV-2 spike S2 subunit—demonstrated potent antiviral activity and stable conformational features. Objectives: To investigate how this antiviral activity [...] Read more.

Background: SARS-CoV-2 fusion inhibitory peptides represent promising antiviral candidates. Recently, a 19-mer peptide (PN19)—designed in our laboratory to mimic the internal fusion peptide of the SARS-CoV-2 spike S2 subunit—demonstrated potent antiviral activity and stable conformational features. Objectives: To investigate how this antiviral activity depends on membrane interactions, we designed synthetic PN19 lipopeptide derivatives and evaluated their efficacy against SARS-CoV-2 replication. Methods: Lipopeptides were synthesized by conjugating cholesterol to either the N- or C-terminus of the PN19 peptide, utilizing a Gly/Ser pentapeptide (GSGSG) and/or various polyethylene glycol (PEG) spacers. Antiviral activity against SARS-CoV-2 variants was evaluated by plaque reduction assays, and cytotoxicity was assessed in Vero E6 cells. Results: The lipopeptides exhibited potent inhibitory activity at sub-micromolar concentrations. Compared to the unmodified PN19 peptide, antiviral efficacy was significantly enhanced by cholesterol conjugation at either terminus. Evaluation of six PN19 lipopeptides bearing the GSGSG sequence and different PEG spacers revealed that C-terminal cholesterol conjugation yielded higher antiviral activity than N-terminal derivatives. Furthermore, thirteen shorter PN19 lipopeptide derivatives (8–13-mers) confirmed this robust efficacy, which was most pronounced with C-terminal cholesterol conjugation and further enhanced by the spacers. Noteworthy, all tested PN19 lipopeptides displayed broad activity against multiple SARS-CoV-2 variants in the absence of cytotoxicity. Conclusions: Collectively, peptides conjugated with cholesterol at the C-terminus emerged as highly potent inhibitors of SARS-CoV-2, likely driven by enhanced peptide–membrane interactions. These findings warrant further investigation to fully elucidate the role of lipidation in the inhibitory mechanism, supporting the development of novel antiviral lipopeptides for SARS-CoV-2 therapy. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Antiviral Agents and Peptides: Discovery, Mechanisms, and Therapeutic Applications)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

17 pages, 2235 KB

Open AccessSystematic Review

Diagnostic Accuracy of Urine and Vaginal Self-Sampling for Detection of High-Risk Human Papillomavirus: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis

by Altynshash Rakhat and Gulzhanat Aimagambetova

Viruses 2026, 18(6), 681; https://doi.org/10.3390/v18060681 - 18 Jun 2026

Viewed by 476

Abstract

Cervical cancer remains a major public health challenge, particularly in low- and middle-income countries. The primary cause of cervical cancer is high-risk human papillomavirus (HPV), and screening using physician-collected samples is complicated by stigma, inconvenience, and access. There are non-invasive alternatives to the [...] Read more.

Cervical cancer remains a major public health challenge, particularly in low- and middle-income countries. The primary cause of cervical cancer is high-risk human papillomavirus (HPV), and screening using physician-collected samples is complicated by stigma, inconvenience, and access. There are non-invasive alternatives to the physician-collected samples, including self-sampling methods such as first-void urine and vaginal swabs. This systematic review and meta-analysis evaluated and compared the diagnostic accuracy of vaginal and urine self-sample methods for detecting high-risk HPV. PubMed, Scopus, Web of Science, and the Cochrane Library were searched for studies published between January 2015 and October 2025. Bivariate random-effects models and HSROC models were used to estimate pooled sensitivity and specificity results compared with clinician-collected samples for CIN2+. Meta-regression assessed sources of heterogeneity. Twenty-two studies involving over 9000 participants were included. Vaginal self-sampling showed a pooled sensitivity of 91.3% and a specificity of 86.9%, while urine self-sampling showed 86.9% sensitivity and 79.5% specificity. Vaginal swabs demonstrated higher sensitivity in head-to-head comparisons. DNA-based PCR assays showed higher sensitivity than mRNA-based tests, and room-temperature storage decreased urine sample sensitivity. Both methods are effective for high-risk HPV detection. Vaginal self-sampling showed superior performance, while urine self-sampling remains a valuable non-invasive option for under-screened populations. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Oncogenic Infections and Cancer: Clinical Insights and Emerging Therapeutics)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

13 pages, 12906 KB

Open AccessArticle

Epidemiological Characteristics of Coxsackievirus A6 in Baotou, Inner Mongolia, China, 2023–2024

by Chenxi Zhang, Yurong Yang, Rong Jin, Jiebo Xia, Hanjie Liu, Guoyong Mei, Haijun Du, Miao Jin, Zhiqiang Xia, Qinqin Song, Desheng Zhai and Jun Han

Viruses 2026, 18(6), 680; https://doi.org/10.3390/v18060680 - 18 Jun 2026

Viewed by 475

Abstract

The re-emergence of Coxsackievirus A6 (CV-A6) as a predominant pathogen in hand, foot, and mouth disease (HFMD) underscores the need for ongoing molecular surveillance to clarify local evolutionary dynamics. This study aimed to characterize the genetic features of CV-A6 strains circulating in Baotou, [...] Read more.

The re-emergence of Coxsackievirus A6 (CV-A6) as a predominant pathogen in hand, foot, and mouth disease (HFMD) underscores the need for ongoing molecular surveillance to clarify local evolutionary dynamics. This study aimed to characterize the genetic features of CV-A6 strains circulating in Baotou, Inner Mongolia, from 2023 to 2024. Throat swabs collected from HFMD patients were screened using real-time quantitative PCR; the VP1 region and complete genomes of representative CV-A6-positive samples were amplified and sequenced. Phylogenetic and recombination analyses were subsequently performed. Among 266 clinical specimens, 169 (63.53%) tested positive for enterovirus, of which 146 (86.39%) were identified as CV-A6. The local epidemic displayed an autumn–winter seasonality and predominantly affected children aged 4–6 years. Phylogenetic reconstruction of 133 VP1 sequences revealed that all Baotou CV-A6 isolates belonged to subgenotype D3c, and analysis of complete genomes identified a predominant recombinant form. These findings demonstrate that the D3c subgenotype, characterized by a specific recombinant structure, was responsible for HFMD outbreaks in Baotou during the study period, providing essential molecular evidence for regional public health strategies and vaccine development. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Human Virology and Viral Diseases)

► Show Figures

Graphical abstract

10 pages, 631 KB

Open AccessArticle

VIP-DB: A Comprehensive Database of Virus–Insect–Plant Relationships

by Tao Deng, Dandan Liu, Xinghui Zhu, Hongyan Zhang and Zheng Zhang

Viruses 2026, 18(6), 679; https://doi.org/10.3390/v18060679 - 18 Jun 2026

Viewed by 456

Abstract

Insect-mediated transmission is central to the epidemiology of plant viruses and has major implications for global food security and agricultural production. Although several resources have compiled information on plant virus transmission, evidence-traceable integration of virus–insect vector–host plant relationships remains limited. Here, we developed [...] Read more.

Insect-mediated transmission is central to the epidemiology of plant viruses and has major implications for global food security and agricultural production. Although several resources have compiled information on plant virus transmission, evidence-traceable integration of virus–insect vector–host plant relationships remains limited. Here, we developed the Virus–Insect–Plant Database (VIP-DB), an evidence-guided database that links literature-derived virus–insect transmission records, host plant information, transmission mode annotations, taxonomic information, and traceable literature evidence. VIP-DB compiles 583 virus–insect transmission relationships, 855 virus–plant relationships with non-missing host plant information, and 1375 integrated virus–insect–plant records. Among these records, 120 lack host plant information and 51 lack transmission mode annotation. VIP-DB provides a curated and searchable resource for querying documented plant virus, insect vector, host plant, and transmission mode information. This database offers an evidence-traceable framework for comparative analyses of plant virus transmission relationships and supports future studies in plant virology, vector ecology, and disease management. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Viruses of Plants, Fungi and Protozoa)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

18 pages, 3934 KB

Open AccessArticle

Genomic Surveillance of Endemic Human Coronaviruses in Côte d’Ivoire Using Targeted Hybrid-Capture Sequencing

by Ange-Michèle M’bra, Syndou Meite, Herve A. Kadjo, Luc Venance Kouakou, Yakoura Ouattara, Mouhamed Kane, Helene A. Kouassi, Ndeye Awa Ndiaye, Olivia Cariolh Koumba-Koumba, Alida Mouliom, Safiétou Sankhe, David Coulibaly Ngolo, Ndongo Dia, Edgard Adjogoua and Moussa Moise Diagne

Viruses 2026, 18(6), 678; https://doi.org/10.3390/v18060678 - 17 Jun 2026

Viewed by 520

Abstract

Endemic human coronaviruses (HCoVs) are important contributors to respiratory infections, yet genomic data from sub-Saharan Africa remain limited. We analyzed 13,530 nasopharyngeal samples collected through the national influenza sentinel surveillance network in Côte d’Ivoire between 2022 and 2024 to characterize the circulation and [...] Read more.

Endemic human coronaviruses (HCoVs) are important contributors to respiratory infections, yet genomic data from sub-Saharan Africa remain limited. We analyzed 13,530 nasopharyngeal samples collected through the national influenza sentinel surveillance network in Côte d’Ivoire between 2022 and 2024 to characterize the circulation and genomic diversity of endemic HCoVs. A subset of 52 RT-qPCR-positive samples with Ct values ≤ 28 was selected for targeted hybrid-capture sequencing using the Twist Bioscience Respiratory Virus Research Panel. Genome recovery metrics were available for 28 samples, including HCoV-NL63 (n = 9), HCoV-229E (n = 8), HCoV-OC43 (n = 9), and HCoV-HKU1 (n = 2). Endemic HCoVs circulated throughout the study period, with temporal variation across species and increased detections during several rainy-season months. No co-presence of multiple endemic HCoV species was identified in the final analytical dataset. Genome recovery differed by species, with broader and more consistent coverage for HCoV-OC43 and HCoV-NL63 than for HCoV-229E and HCoV-HKU1. Phylogenetic analysis showed that all recovered HCoV-229E genomes clustered within genotype L6 and all recovered HCoV-HKU1 genomes within genotype A, whereas HCoV-OC43 and HCoV-NL63 were distributed across multiple genotypes among recovered genomes. To our knowledge, these findings provide the first genomic data on endemic HCoVs from Côte d’Ivoire and support the feasibility and further targeted integration of targeted hybrid-capture sequencing into routine genomic surveillance of respiratory viruses. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Coronaviruses and Influenza Viruses: Evolution, Cross-Species Transmission, and Recombination)

► Show Figures

Graphical abstract

15 pages, 1833 KB

Open AccessArticle

Establishment of a Duplex Quantitative PCR Assay for the Detection and Differentiation of African Swine Fever Virus Genotype I, Genotype II, and Genotype I/II Recombinants

by Naoki Yoshida, Shiho Oka, Anh Duc Truong, Mizuki Watanabe, Mitsutaka Ikezawa, Hien Thi Thu Nguyen, Le Thi Hai Vo, Tuong Dinh Nguyen, Tomoya Kitamura, Tatsuya Nishi, Takehiro Kokuho, Hoang Vu Dang, Ha Thi Thanh Tran and Kentaro Masujin

Viruses 2026, 18(6), 677; https://doi.org/10.3390/v18060677 - 17 Jun 2026

Viewed by 570

Abstract

African swine fever (ASF) is a highly fatal, febrile infectious disease of domestic pigs and wild boars caused by the African swine fever virus (ASFV). Recently, highly virulent recombinant ASFVs with chimeric genomes derived from p72 genotype I and II viruses have emerged [...] Read more.

African swine fever (ASF) is a highly fatal, febrile infectious disease of domestic pigs and wild boars caused by the African swine fever virus (ASFV). Recently, highly virulent recombinant ASFVs with chimeric genomes derived from p72 genotype I and II viruses have emerged in China, Vietnam, and Russia. These genotype I/II recombinants can evade immunity induced by genotype II–based vaccines, thereby complicating disease control efforts. To address this challenge, a novel duplex quantitative PCR (qPCR) assay was developed to simultaneously detect and differentiate genotypes I, II, and I/II recombinants in a single reaction. The assay exhibited high sensitivity and specificity, with a reliable detection limit of 10 copies/reaction for genotype I and II ASFV DNA. Validation using clinical samples collected in northern Vietnam in 2025 confirmed a robust performance in accurately distinguishing circulating genotype II viruses from recombinant genotype I/II viruses, including the detection of potential co-infection. Whole-genome sequencing of selected positive samples further corroborated these findings. Overall, this qPCR assay provides a precise and efficient tool for identifying currently circulating ASFV genotypes, thereby facilitating improved disease surveillance and supporting a comprehensive understanding of the evolving epidemiological landscape of ASF in regions with increasing viral genetic diversity. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Early Diagnosis and Surveillance of Transboundary and Emerging Viral Diseases of Animals, 2nd Edition)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

13 pages, 1455 KB

Open AccessArticle

Epidemiological Survey of DNA Viruses in Non-Native Pond Sliders (Trachemys scripta) in Northeastern Italy

by Claudia Maria Tucciarone, Giovanni Franzo, Daniela Pasotto, Riccardo Baston, Luca Spadotto, Cinzia Centelleghe and Erica Marchiori

Viruses 2026, 18(6), 676; https://doi.org/10.3390/v18060676 - 17 Jun 2026

Viewed by 491

Abstract

The spread of non-native freshwater turtles in urban, peri-urban, and natural environments poses increasing ecological and sanitary concerns, particularly due to their potential role as reservoirs of infectious agents. Among these, DNA viruses remain largely unexplored in both invasive and native chelonians. In [...] Read more.

The spread of non-native freshwater turtles in urban, peri-urban, and natural environments poses increasing ecological and sanitary concerns, particularly due to their potential role as reservoirs of infectious agents. Among these, DNA viruses remain largely unexplored in both invasive and native chelonians. In this study, a molecular survey targeting selected viral pathogens was conducted on oral and cloacal swabs collected from non-native freshwater turtles from natural and confinement ponds in Northeastern Italy, with the aim of assessing the pathogen’s presence and their potential epidemiological relevance. One hundred sixty-four pond sliders (Trachemys scripta) were sampled from three sites: Herpesviruses and ranaviruses were not detected; in contrast, adenoviruses were frequently identified (72/163, 44.2%). Sequence analyses allowed their classification mostly as Testadenovirus trachemys, with only a single detection of a strain closely related to siadenoviruses and previously associated with mortality events in other tortoise species. Although the pathogenic significance of these viruses remains unclear, their detection highlights the potential role of non-native turtles as viral carriers and underlines the need for systematic virological surveillance in non-native species, particularly in ecosystems shared with susceptible native fauna. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Viral Diseases of Aquatic Animals: Crustaceans, Mollusks, Fish, Sea Turtles, and Marine Mammals)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

37 pages, 188092 KB

Open AccessArticle

Exploring Key Regulators of Mitochondrial Dynamics and Immune Response in SARS-CoV-2 Infection

by Thatiana Corrêa de Melo, Hellen Paula Valerio, Dilza Trevisan-Silva, Marcelo Medina de Souza, Amanda Teixeira de Melo, Miryam Paola Alvarez-Flores, Douglas Souza Oliveira, Renata Nascimento Gomes, Glaucia Maria Machado-Santelli, Beatriz Fumelli Monti Ribeiro, Viviane Fongaro Botosso, Soraia Attie Calil Jorge and Ana Marisa Chudzinski-Tavassi

Viruses 2026, 18(6), 675; https://doi.org/10.3390/v18060675 - 16 Jun 2026

Viewed by 518

Abstract

Mitochondria are central hubs of antiviral immunity and cellular metabolism, yet the links between SARS-CoV-2–induced mitochondrial remodeling, antiviral gene regulation, and post-translational control remain incompletely understood. Here, we investigated mitochondrial–immune remodeling in SARS-CoV-2–infected lung-derived LC-HK2 cells at 48 and 96 h post-infection using [...] Read more.

Mitochondria are central hubs of antiviral immunity and cellular metabolism, yet the links between SARS-CoV-2–induced mitochondrial remodeling, antiviral gene regulation, and post-translational control remain incompletely understood. Here, we investigated mitochondrial–immune remodeling in SARS-CoV-2–infected lung-derived LC-HK2 cells at 48 and 96 h post-infection using confocal and high-content imaging, colocalization analysis, CellProfiler quantification, RT-qPCR, proteomics, cytokine profiling, and conditioned-medium analysis. Infection induced a time-dependent mitochondrial phenotype. At 48 hpi, cells displayed early mitochondrial stress and fission-associated signatures, including increased DRP1, transient upregulation of mitochondrial respiratory genes, and reduced MFN1/2. At 96 hpi, mitochondria shifted toward elongated perinuclear networks, accompanied by increased fusion/biogenesis markers and partial ISG15–MFN2 colocalization, indicating a spatial association between ISG15-related antiviral/stress responses and mitochondrial remodeling. Antiviral and ISG-related transcripts were consistently upregulated, but IFN-α2 secretion remained limited, suggesting partial uncoupling between antiviral transcriptional activation and downstream interferon output. SUMO2/3 was dynamically modulated and showed time-dependent colocalization with mitochondrial dynamics proteins and MAVS. Together, these data support a coordinated mitochondrial–immune regulatory axis involving mitochondrial remodeling, ISG15-associated responses, and SUMO-dependent regulation during SARS-CoV-2 infection. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Coronaviruses Pathogenesis, Immunity, and Antivirals (2nd Edition))

► Show Figures

Graphical abstract

39 pages, 11131 KB

Open AccessReview

Viral Mastery: The Dynamic Regulation of Interferon Signaling

by Niranjan Dodantenna

Viruses 2026, 18(6), 674; https://doi.org/10.3390/v18060674 - 16 Jun 2026

Viewed by 747

Abstract

Interferons (IFNs) are antiviral cytokines that serve as key mediators of the innate immune response, and their production is induced in the majority of cells within hours of pathogen entry. IFNs are predominantly produced by pathogen-infected cells; however, their antiviral effects extend to [...] Read more.

Interferons (IFNs) are antiviral cytokines that serve as key mediators of the innate immune response, and their production is induced in the majority of cells within hours of pathogen entry. IFNs are predominantly produced by pathogen-infected cells; however, their antiviral effects extend to surrounding cells through autocrine and paracrine signaling mechanisms, inducing the transcription of hundreds of antiviral genes. Numerous gene products either interfere directly with viral replication or play regulatory roles that influence the progression and strength of the ensuing immune response. Viruses, on the other hand, have devised techniques to circumvent the host antiviral immune response and establish infection. This review focuses on the current state of evidence demonstrating how certain viral proteins block antiviral responses via immunomodulatory strategies and discusses how to overcome these immune evasion tactics. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Interferon in Viral Pathogenesis: Immune Modulation and Evasion)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

21 pages, 1308 KB

Open AccessReview

Histone Deacetylase Inhibitors (HDACis) as Latency-Reversing Agents in HIV Cure Strategies: Chemistry, Selectivity, and Clinical Perspective

by Hanan Almolhim

Viruses 2026, 18(6), 673; https://doi.org/10.3390/v18060673 - 16 Jun 2026

Viewed by 524

Abstract

Latently infected resting CD4+ T cells represent the principal barrier to HIV eradication. Their immunological quiescence renders them invisible to combination antiretroviral therapy (cART) and host immune surveillance, sustaining a reservoir that mandates lifelong treatment. The ‘shock and kill’ strategy seeks to reverse [...] Read more.

Latently infected resting CD4+ T cells represent the principal barrier to HIV eradication. Their immunological quiescence renders them invisible to combination antiretroviral therapy (cART) and host immune surveillance, sustaining a reservoir that mandates lifelong treatment. The ‘shock and kill’ strategy seeks to reverse this latency using pharmacological latency-reversing agents (LRAs) so that immune effectors and cART can eliminate reactivated cells. In this narrative, structured review, we examine histone deacetylase inhibitors (HDACis) as LRAs from a medicinal chemistry perspective. The review places particular emphasis on structure–activity relationship (SAR), isoform selectivity, and the mechanistic basis of differential clinical performance, synthesizing evidence from preclinical, ex vivo, and clinical studies published between 2010 and 2026. Four structural classes of HDACis—hydroxamic acids, benzamides, cyclic depsipeptides, and short-chain fatty acids—differ substantially in isoform selectivity, potency, pharmacokinetics, and tolerability. No single agent has achieved statistically significant reservoir reduction in clinical trials, highlighting the apparent inadequacy of the ‘shock’ phase alone and suggesting a need for complementary ‘kill’ strategies. Rational design of HDACis informed by isoform-selective SAR, combined with emerging combination LRA strategies and immunological ‘kill’ components, represents a promising direction toward a functional HIV cure, though substantial translational hurdles remain. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Regulation of HIV-1 Transcription and Latency, 2nd Edition)

► Show Figures

Graphical abstract

2 pages, 131 KB

Open AccessEditorial

Arboviral Diseases in Livestock

by Estelle Venter and Antoinette van Schalkwyk

Viruses 2026, 18(6), 672; https://doi.org/10.3390/v18060672 - 15 Jun 2026

Viewed by 402

Abstract

In 1984, the then Director of the National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases (NIAID) suggested that HIV was the only emerging infectious disease likely to pose a significant future threat [...] Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Arboviral Diseases in Livestock)

13 pages, 1348 KB

Open AccessArticle

Clinical and Humoral Immune Features of Post-COVID Syndrome One Year After SARS-CoV-2 Infection in Elderly Patients with Type 2 Diabetes

by Svetlana Bolshakova, Saule Altynbekova, Zhangentkhan Abylaiuly and Gulim Aldangarova

Viruses 2026, 18(6), 671; https://doi.org/10.3390/v18060671 - 14 Jun 2026

Viewed by 547

Abstract

Background: Post-COVID syndrome represents a significant medical and public health challenge, particularly among older adults and individuals with type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM), in whom disturbances in immune and metabolic homeostasis may contribute to the development and persistence of symptoms following SARS-CoV-2 infection. [...] Read more.

Background: Post-COVID syndrome represents a significant medical and public health challenge, particularly among older adults and individuals with type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM), in whom disturbances in immune and metabolic homeostasis may contribute to the development and persistence of symptoms following SARS-CoV-2 infection. Objective: To investigate the clinical, immunological, and metabolic characteristics of post-COVID syndrome in older adults with T2DM. Methods: A cross-sectional comparative study was conducted involving 141 patients aged ≥ 60 years who were evaluated more than one year after SARS-CoV-2 infection. Clinical data, anthropometric measurements, complete blood count parameters, biochemical markers, glycated hemoglobin (HbA1c), and SARS-CoV-2-specific IgG antibodies were assessed. Statistical analyses were performed using nonparametric methods, while Pearson’s χ² test was applied for categorical variables. A p-value < 0.05 was considered statistically significant. Results: Symptoms consistent with post-COVID syndrome one year after SARS-CoV-2 infection were identified in 53.2% of participants. No significant differences in anthropometric characteristics, hematological parameters, or most biochemical markers were observed between patients with and without post-COVID syndrome. Patients with T2DM exhibited higher fasting glucose, HbA1c, and SARS-CoV-2–specific IgG antibody levels, reflecting underlying metabolic characteristics and differences in humoral immune responses during the late post-COVID period. Conclusions: Post-COVID syndrome symptoms were frequently observed among older adults at the time of assessment, more than one year after SARS-CoV-2 infection, despite normalization of most laboratory parameters. In patients with T2DM, higher glucose, HbA1c, and antibody levels likely reflect underlying metabolic characteristics rather than a direct effect of post-COVID syndrome. Further longitudinal studies are warranted to clarify the long-term clinical significance of the observed metabolic and immunological findings. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Molecular Epidemiology of SARS-CoV-2, 4th Edition)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

17 pages, 3124 KB

Open AccessArticle

Innate Pathway Selection Modulates Antibody and T-Cell Responses to Mosaic Influenza Nucleoprotein in Cattle

by Clara Cole, Thomas Cleven, Marlee Henige, Keith Poulsen, Mike Maroney, Lautaro Rostoll-Cangiano, Doerte Doepfer and Marulasiddappa Suresh

Viruses 2026, 18(6), 670; https://doi.org/10.3390/v18060670 - 13 Jun 2026

Viewed by 673

Abstract

Highly pathogenic avian influenza (HPAI) is a lethal disease of poultry that has recently spilled over into mammals, including dairy cattle and humans, heightening concerns for livestock health, food security, and pandemic emergence. While vaccines that induce neutralizing antibodies against hemagglutinin and neuraminidase [...] Read more.

Highly pathogenic avian influenza (HPAI) is a lethal disease of poultry that has recently spilled over into mammals, including dairy cattle and humans, heightening concerns for livestock health, food security, and pandemic emergence. While vaccines that induce neutralizing antibodies against hemagglutinin and neuraminidase provide strain-specific protection, durable cross-subtype immunity requires T-cell responses targeting conserved internal antigens such as nucleoprotein (NP). To leverage these conserved targets, we utilized a previously engineered mosaic nucleoprotein (MNP) incorporating T-cell epitopes from thousands of influenza A virus (IAV) strains, conferring broad protection against epidemic (H3N2) and pandemic (H1N1) IAV in mice. Here, we tested whether precision adjuvancy could differentially imprint adaptive immunity to MNP in cattle. Combination formulations paired the carbomer-based nano-emulsion Adjuplex (ADJ) with either a STING agonist (cyclic dinucleotides; CdN) or a TLR4 agonist (glucopyranosyl lipid A; GLA) to program distinct inflammatory milieus. Both formulations elicited circulating IFN-γ–producing T cell responses and NP-specific antibodies in serum and milk. However, STING activation via CdN generated more potent and consistent cellular and humoral immunity than TLR4 engagement. These data demonstrate that selective activation of innate sensing pathways functionally imprints adaptive immune magnitude and quality in a large animal host. By advancing a broadly protective, T-cell-focused vaccine strategy in cattle, this work supports a One Health framework to mitigate H5N1 transmission risk at the human–animal interface. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Role of Adjuvants in Viral Vaccines and Vaccination)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

19 pages, 19222 KB

Open AccessArticle

The Podophage PM16 Enhances the Humoral Immune Response Against Proteus mirabilis

by Lina Al Allaf, Anton V. Chechushkov, Vera V. Morozova, Yulia N. Kozlova, Tatiana A. Ushakova and Nina V. Tikunova

Viruses 2026, 18(6), 669; https://doi.org/10.3390/v18060669 - 12 Jun 2026

Viewed by 486

Abstract

Considering the therapeutic potential of the Proteus mirabilis PM16 podophage, the interaction between PM16, its host strain, and the mouse immune system was investigated. We evaluated how pre-existing humoral immunity to PM16 influences the immune response against P. mirabilis and the neutralization of [...] Read more.

Considering the therapeutic potential of the Proteus mirabilis PM16 podophage, the interaction between PM16, its host strain, and the mouse immune system was investigated. We evaluated how pre-existing humoral immunity to PM16 influences the immune response against P. mirabilis and the neutralization of the phage itself. Balb/c mice were divided into three groups and immunized two times with (1) 0.9% NaCl, (2) adjuvants, or (3) a mixture of PM16 and an adjuvant. Then, each group was subdivided into three subgroups: mock infection, infection with P. mirabilis, and infection with P. mirabilis followed by model phage therapy with PM16. The obtained results demonstrated that pre-immunization with PM16 enhanced the anti-P. mirabilis IgG antibody response upon bacterial challenge, indicating that the phage potentiates antibacterial immunity. In addition, pre-immunization elicited a significant anti-PM16 antibody response that resulted in in vitro neutralization of phage lytic activity. However, phage-neutralizing antibodies neither decreased the efficacy of phage therapy nor influenced bacteria-specific immune response. Thus, while PM16 can boost the host’s immune response against its bacterial host, the resulting humoral immunity also drives phage clearance through both direct and bacteria-mediated neutralization pathways, revealing a complex immunopharmacological relationship central to phage therapy. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Bacterial Viruses)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

27 pages, 14139 KB

Open AccessArticle

Transmission Dynamics and Control of the 2025 Lumpy Skin Disease Epidemic in Sardinia (Italy): A Spatial and Epidemiological Analysis

by Federica Loi, Gaia Muroni, Guido Di Donato, Paolo Calistri, Daria Di Sabatino and Stefano Cappai

Viruses 2026, 18(6), 668; https://doi.org/10.3390/v18060668 - 12 Jun 2026

Viewed by 663

Abstract

Lumpy skin disease (LSD), a vector-borne viral disease of cattle, re-emerged in Italy in June 2025 after six years of absence in Europe, affecting the island of Sardinia, which had previously been disease-free. The insular setting, the predominance of extensive cattle farming systems, [...] Read more.

Lumpy skin disease (LSD), a vector-borne viral disease of cattle, re-emerged in Italy in June 2025 after six years of absence in Europe, affecting the island of Sardinia, which had previously been disease-free. The insular setting, the predominance of extensive cattle farming systems, and the rapid implementation of control measures provided a unique opportunity to investigate epidemic dynamics and evaluate vaccination effectiveness under field conditions. This study aimed to describe the epidemiological pattern of the first epidemic season (June–October 2025), estimate key transmission parameters, and assess vaccination effectiveness at the farm level. Confirmed outbreaks consistent with local transmission and notified between 20 June and 26 October 2025 were analyzed to characterize epidemic transmission dynamics, while vaccination effectiveness was assessed over an extended follow-up period through 31 December 2025. The between-farm basic reproduction number (R₀) was estimated from the early exponential growth phase using log-linear regression and doubling time calculations. Spatio-temporal clustering was assessed using Kulldorff’s scan statistic under a Poisson model, accounting for the population at risk. Vaccination effectiveness was evaluated using a time-dependent Cox proportional hazards model with a 21-day post-vaccination lag. A total of 79 outbreaks were confirmed, of which 68 were consistent with local transmission. Affected farms included a total of 3443 cattle, with morbidity, mortality, and case fatality rates of 14.4%, 7.0%, and 31.1%, respectively. The exponential growth phase lasted four weeks, with an estimated growth rate of 0.366 per week and a doubling time of 1.89 weeks. The estimated R₀ ranged from 1.55 to 1.92, depending on the assumed generation time, indicating moderate but sustained transmission. The median apparent spatial spread velocity was 4.8 km/day. Spatio-temporal analysis identified a single highly significant cluster in the central-eastern area, accounting for approximately 27% of outbreaks (RR = 58.06; p < 0.001). Vaccination was associated with a substantial reduction in outbreak risk (HR = 0.18; 95% CI: 0.06–0.51; p = 0.001), corresponding to an estimated effectiveness of approximately 82% at the farm level. The 2025 Sardinian epidemic was characterized by moderate transmissibility and strong spatial clustering during the early phase. Rapid implementation of vaccination was associated with a significant reduction in outbreak risk, even under conditions of high infection pressure. The integration of spatio-temporal analyses and time-dependent modeling proved essential to support evidence-based control strategies in newly affected regions. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Epidemiology, Risk Analysis, Detection and Management of Lumpy Skin Disease in Europe)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

11 pages, 1459 KB

Open AccessArticle

Analysis of Tonsillar NK Cell Markers in Pediatric Epstein–Barr Virus (EBV) Asymptomatic Infection and EBV-Associated Hodgkin Lymphoma

by Natalia M. Ferressini Gerpe, María E. Amarillo, Oscar Jimenez, Agustina Moyano, María S. Caldirola, María I. Gaillard, Elena De Matteo and Paola Chabay

Viruses 2026, 18(6), 667; https://doi.org/10.3390/v18060667 - 12 Jun 2026

Viewed by 490

Abstract

In Argentina, a high incidence of EBV-associated lymphomas was demonstrated in young children. Natural killer (NK) cells, particularly, IFN-γ-producing CD56bright NK cells, have been reported to play a key role in asymptomatic EBV infection in children, restricting viral-mediated transformation. In order to analyze [...] Read more.

In Argentina, a high incidence of EBV-associated lymphomas was demonstrated in young children. Natural killer (NK) cells, particularly, IFN-γ-producing CD56bright NK cells, have been reported to play a key role in asymptomatic EBV infection in children, restricting viral-mediated transformation. In order to analyze NK cell characteristics in children with primary and persistent EBV infection, along with EBV+ Hodgkin lymphoma (HL) from Argentina, a cohort of EBV-infected pediatric patients was analyzed. A scarcity of CD56+ cells, as an indirect marker of NK cells, across all tonsillar samples and pediatric classical Hodgkin lymphoma cases was observed, with no significant differences according to EBV status. In primary infection, CD56+ cells showed a positive correlation with IFNγ+ cells, suggesting a role in early antiviral responses. Flow cytometry revealed an increased proportion of CD56bright NK cells in EBV-infected children, particularly in cases expressing latency II/III antigens. A significantly higher IFN-γ production was observed in CD56bright cells in children with primary infection compared with healthy carriers, along with an inverse correlation between IFN-γ production and CD56bright cells in healthy carriers. These findings suggest that NK cells may contribute to immune control predominantly during primary infection, whereas their role appears limited in healthy carriers and in EBV-associated Hodgkin lymphoma. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue EBV Infection and EBV-Associated Lymphomas in Children)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

19 pages, 11233 KB

Open AccessArticle

Molecular Epidemiology of Respiratory Syncytial Virus and Rhinovirus in Santander, Colombia, During the COVID-19 Pandemic and Post-Pandemic Periods, 2020–2024

by William Fernando Chaparro-Pico, Nathalia Bueno, Anyela Lozano-Parra, Jürg Niederbacher, Víctor Herrera, Luis Miguel Sosa Ávila, Mayra Alejandra Machuca Pérez and Martha Lucía Díaz Galvis

Viruses 2026, 18(6), 666; https://doi.org/10.3390/v18060666 - 12 Jun 2026

Viewed by 690

Abstract

Respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) and rhinovirus (RV) are major causes of acute respiratory infections (ARIs) worldwide. The circulation of both RSV and RV was notably altered during the COVID-19 pandemic. This study analyzed the epidemiological and molecular characteristics of RSV and RV in [...] Read more.

Respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) and rhinovirus (RV) are major causes of acute respiratory infections (ARIs) worldwide. The circulation of both RSV and RV was notably altered during the COVID-19 pandemic. This study analyzed the epidemiological and molecular characteristics of RSV and RV in Santander, Colombia, during the pandemic period (PP, 2020–2021) and the post-pandemic period (PPP, 2023–2024). A total of 921 respiratory samples from patients with ARIs were screened for RSV-A/B and RV. Sequences of the RSV attachment glycoprotein (G) gene and the RV VP4–VP2 region were analyzed in positive samples. Epidemiological and clinical characteristics of the study population were also assessed. RSV was not detected during PP, whereas RV was detected in 4.8% of samples. During PPP, RSV-A, RSV-B, and RV were detected in 5.6%, 4.4%, and 28.0% of samples, respectively. RSV infections were mainly identified in children, while RV was detected across all age groups. RSV-A sequences grouped within seven A.D-derived lineages (A.D.1.5, A.D.1.7, A.D.1.8, A.D.3.2, A.D.3.3, A.D.5.1, A.D.5.2), whereas RSV-B sequences clustered within the B.D.E.1 lineage. RV showed a higher number of detected genotypes during the PPP than during the PP. The genotypic characterization performed in this study provides new insight into the molecular epidemiology of RSV and RV in Santander, Colombia, during PP and PPP, and represents, to our knowledge, the first regional description of RSV lineages and RV genotypes across these periods. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue 70 Years of Rhinoviruses: From the Common Cold to Complex Pathogens)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

17 pages, 271 KB

Open AccessArticle

Beyond Infection: The Interplay of Salivary Human Herpesvirus 6, Stress, and Host Factors in Major Depressive Disorder

by Sunisa Srabuakam, Pitsupha Paladech, Sutida Pongpakdeesakul, Sureewan Duangjit and Sureewan Bumrungthai

Viruses 2026, 18(6), 665; https://doi.org/10.3390/v18060665 - 12 Jun 2026

Viewed by 431

Abstract

Human Herpesvirus 6 (HHV-6) is a neurotropic virus associated with lifelong latency and stress-induced reactivation. Its role in major depressive disorder (MDD) remains unclear. This study investigated the association between HHV-6 infection and MDD and evaluated interaction effects with psychosocial and clinical factors. [...] Read more.

Human Herpesvirus 6 (HHV-6) is a neurotropic virus associated with lifelong latency and stress-induced reactivation. Its role in major depressive disorder (MDD) remains unclear. This study investigated the association between HHV-6 infection and MDD and evaluated interaction effects with psychosocial and clinical factors. A cross-sectional study was conducted among 2403 university students in Thailand, including 52 participants with physician-diagnosed MDD and 2351 healthy controls. HHV-6 DNA was detected by quantitative polymerase chain reaction (qPCR) using saliva. Logistic regression and interaction analyses were performed. HHV-6 DNA was detected in 50.7% of participants. HHV-6 infection was not significantly associated with MDD (OR = 1.335, 95% CI: 0.766–2.328, p = 0.309). Multivariable analysis identified congenital disease, high-fat food consumption, stress, and depressive symptoms as independent predictors of MDD. Significant interaction effects were observed between HHV-6 and several factors. HHV-6 was not independently associated with MDD; however, exploratory interaction analyses identified potential relationships with selected psychosocial and host-related factors that require further validation. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Herpesviruses and Associated Diseases, 2nd Edition)

42 pages, 1282 KB

Open AccessReview

Protecting Newborns from Multidrug-Resistant Infections: The Emerging Role of Bacteriophages

by Olaf Bajrak, Andrzej Górski and Ewa Jończyk-Matysiak

Viruses 2026, 18(6), 664; https://doi.org/10.3390/v18060664 - 12 Jun 2026

Viewed by 680

Abstract

Newborns may suffer from dangerous bacterial infections caused by life-threatening multi-drug resistant pathogens. Thus, despite bactericidal capabilities of antibiotics, microorganisms are known to circumvent this therapy, and a new, more effective type of remedy is needed. An increasingly recognized strategy for addressing these [...] Read more.

Newborns may suffer from dangerous bacterial infections caused by life-threatening multi-drug resistant pathogens. Thus, despite bactericidal capabilities of antibiotics, microorganisms are known to circumvent this therapy, and a new, more effective type of remedy is needed. An increasingly recognized strategy for addressing these challenges is the use of bacteriophages—viruses infecting bacteria—collectively referred to as phage therapy. Nonetheless, the research considering phage therapy amongst newborns is still at a pioneering stage, owing to the scarcity of systematic investigations and the prevalence of case-study data, leaving room for further discovery and analysis. This review summarizes the information needed to understand this complex issue, considering the description of pathogens causing infections affecting newborns, the formation of the early microbiota and phageome (defining its composition followed by an influence on immune system development), and the possible use of bacteriophages in the treatment, which may be complicated by ethical concerns. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Bacteriophages as Precision Tools for Microbiome Modulation)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

2 pages, 150 KB

Open AccessCorrection

Correction: Franco et al. Whole Blood Volume-Based Absolute Quantification of HTLV-1 Proviral Load: A Comparative Method Evaluation Study. Viruses 2026, 18, 580

by Gabriel O. Franco, Andreas Stocker, Eduardo M. Netto, Heliene Pereira and Carlos Brites

Viruses 2026, 18(6), 663; https://doi.org/10.3390/v18060663 - 12 Jun 2026

Viewed by 370

Abstract

In the original publication [...] Full article

26 pages, 29377 KB

Open AccessArticle

WIN 55,212-2 Modulates Antiviral, Inflammatory, and ER Stress Responses in Mayaro Virus-Infected Macrophages: Insights from RNA-Seq and In Vitro Studies

by Lady Johana Hernández-Sarmiento, Juan Felipe Valdés-López and Silvio Urcuqui-Inchima

Viruses 2026, 18(6), 662; https://doi.org/10.3390/v18060662 - 12 Jun 2026

Viewed by 570

Abstract

Mayaro virus (MAYV) is an emerging arbovirus from the Togaviridae family where inflammation plays a central role in disease development. As the cause of Mayaro fever, MAYV triggers strong production of pro-inflammatory cytokines, which can result in long-lasting arthralgia in affected individuals. Macrophages [...] Read more.

Mayaro virus (MAYV) is an emerging arbovirus from the Togaviridae family where inflammation plays a central role in disease development. As the cause of Mayaro fever, MAYV triggers strong production of pro-inflammatory cytokines, which can result in long-lasting arthralgia in affected individuals. Macrophages are both targets for viral infection and key regulators of inflammatory responses. Human monocyte-derived macrophages (MDMs) are susceptible to MAYV infection in vitro and support productive viral replication. With no approved antivirals or vaccines, finding host-directed therapies is an urgent priority. Cannabinoids are compounds with antiviral and immunomodulatory properties, suggesting potential against MAYV infection. Here, we examined the effects of cannabidiol (CBD) and the synthetic cannabinoid WIN 55,212-2 on MAYV-infected MDMs in pre- and post-treatment conditions. Cells and supernatants were collected at 6 and 24 h post-infection (h.p.i). To understand the mechanisms involved, transcriptomic and functional analyses were performed at 24 h.p.i in the post-treatment setting, focusing on inflammatory, antiviral, and endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress pathways. WIN 55,212-2 post-treatment significantly decreased viral replication at 24 h.p.i without any direct virucidal activity and was independent of type I interferon activation or interferon-stimulated gene induction, instead being linked to the modulation of ER stress signaling. Specifically, WIN 55,212-2 increased IRE-1α RNase activity, promoting the alternative splicing of sXBP1, while the integrated stress response appeared central to its antiviral effect. Additionally, WIN 55,212-2 downregulated inflammation-related genes and altered cytokine and chemokine production, counteracting the strong inflammatory response caused by MAYV. Remarkably, it also exerted broader immunomodulatory effects independent of infection. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Contribution of the Host Cell Integrated Stress Response (ISR) to Immunopathogenesis of Human RNA Viral Infections)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

12 pages, 1418 KB

Open AccessArticle

Canine Parvovirus Asian Type 2 Variant C (CPV-2c) Detected in Côte d’Ivoire

by Aristide A. Zobo, Vessaly Kallo, N’guessan F. Diobo, Comoé C. D. N’guessan, N’Cho P. Asseu, Lou S. A. Kouassi, Kouachi C. A. Asseu, Coulibaly T. R. Tiecoura, Geneviève L. Acapovi-Yao, Charles E. Lamien, William G. Dundon and Giovanni Franzo

Viruses 2026, 18(6), 661; https://doi.org/10.3390/v18060661 - 11 Jun 2026

Viewed by 449

Abstract

Canine parvovirus 2 (CPV-2) is a highly contagious virus transmitted among dogs through direct or indirect contact with infected feces. The disease poses a significant risk to unvaccinated animals, particularly young dogs, where mortality rates can be high. Globally, three CPV genotypes (e.g., [...] Read more.

Canine parvovirus 2 (CPV-2) is a highly contagious virus transmitted among dogs through direct or indirect contact with infected feces. The disease poses a significant risk to unvaccinated animals, particularly young dogs, where mortality rates can be high. Globally, three CPV genotypes (e.g., 2a, 2b, and 2c) are known to circulate, with all three detected in several African countries. However, no cases of CPV-2 have been reported in Côte d’Ivoire until now. In this study, 12 fecal swabs collected from young dogs were positive for CPV-2 by conventional PCR. Subsequent sequencing and phylogenetic analysis of positive amplicons revealed that three samples belonged to the CPV-2c genotype, while the remaining nine showed high similarity to a CPV-2c variant recently reported in Asia, and more specifically, Vietnam. Phylogeographic analysis indicates multiple introduction pathways of the virus into Côte d’Ivoire. This study represents the first documented report of CPV-2 in Côte d’Ivoire and will be of interest to those working in the field of canine health. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Animal Viruses)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

Journal Menu

Journal Browser

Viruses, Volume 18, Issue 6 (June 2026) – 105 articles

Further Information

Guidelines

MDPI Initiatives

Follow MDPI