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Insights into the Management of Cardiovascular Disease Risk Factors
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Insights into the Management of Cardiovascular Disease Risk Factors

A special issue of Diseases (ISSN 2079-9721). This special issue belongs to the section "Cardiology".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: 31 March 2026 | Viewed by 6686

Special Issue Editors

Dr. Paweł Muszyński

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
Department of Cardiology, Lipidology and Internal Medicine with Cardiac Intensive Care Unit, Medical University of Bialystok, Żurawia 14, 15-540 Białystok, Poland
Interests: risk factors; sex-related differences; lipid disorders; familial hypercholesterolemia; residual risk
Prof. Dr. Anna Tomaszuk-Kazberuk

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
Department of Cardiology, Lipidology and Internal Medicine with Cardiac Intensive Care Unit, Medical University of Bialystok, Żurawia 14, 15-540 Białystok, Poland
Interests: hypertension; atrial fibrillation; heart failure

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

Despite significant developments in diagnostic tools and treatment, cardiovascular diseases remain the primary cause of death worldwide.

Ongoing research into novel risk factors and improved management is necessary to improve outcomes. The treatment of classical risk factors such as hypertension, diabetes mellitus and dyslipidemia is crucial, but it does not completely eliminate cardiovascular risk. Modern approaches to risk management should incorporate non-classical elements of the lipid profile, including cholesterol remnants, triglyceride-rich lipoproteins, and lipoprotein (a). Furthermore, evidence suggesting the involvement of systemic inflammation is continuing to increase. Many studies are currently exploring elective treatment options for remaining risks, also known as residual risks. Additionally, a personalised approach, which accounts for differences in specific patients groups, such as sex-related differences, can be more effective.

This Special Issue aims to investigate the influence of novel risk factors on cardiovascular diseases, focusing on their clinical utility, impact on incidence, treatment choices, and potential interventions for prevention.

Dr. Paweł Muszyński
Prof. Dr. Anna Tomaszuk-Kazberuk
Guest Editors

Manuscript Submission Information

Manuscripts should be submitted online at www.mdpi.com by registering and logging in to this website. Once you are registered, click here to go to the submission form. Manuscripts can be submitted until the deadline. All submissions that pass pre-check are peer-reviewed. Accepted papers will be published continuously in the journal (as soon as accepted) and will be listed together on the special issue website. Research articles, review articles as well as short communications are invited. For planned papers, a title and short abstract (about 250 words) can be sent to the Editorial Office for assessment.

Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a single-blind peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. Diseases is an international peer-reviewed open access monthly journal published by MDPI.

Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. The Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal is 1800 CHF (Swiss Francs). Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.

Keywords

  • cardiovascular diseases
  • non-classical risk factors
  • residual risk
  • systemic inflammation

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Published Papers (5 papers)

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Research

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15 pages, 621 KB  
Article
Impact of Chronic Kidney Disease on Clinical, Laboratory, and Echocardiographic Features in Patients with Chronic Heart Failure
by Anastasija Ilić, Olivera Kovačević, Aleksandra Milovančev, Nikola Mladenović, Dragica Andrić, Dragana Dabović, Milana Jaraković, Srdjan Maletin, Teodora Pantić, Branislav Crnomarković, Mihaela Preveden, Ranko Zdravković, Anastazija Stojšić Milosavljević, Aleksandra Ilić, Lazar Velicki and Andrej Preveden
Diseases 2026, 14(1), 35; https://doi.org/10.3390/diseases14010035 - 20 Jan 2026
Abstract
Objective: The aim of this study was to evaluate the impact of chronic kidney disease (CKD) on clinical presentation, laboratory parameters, ECG, and echocardiographic features of patients with chronic heart failure (CHF). Methods: This retrospective cross-sectional study included 2227 patients hospitalized in a [...] Read more.
Objective: The aim of this study was to evaluate the impact of chronic kidney disease (CKD) on clinical presentation, laboratory parameters, ECG, and echocardiographic features of patients with chronic heart failure (CHF). Methods: This retrospective cross-sectional study included 2227 patients hospitalized in a tertiary care center due to CHF. Patients were divided into two groups based on the presence of CKD, defined as eGFR < 60 mL/min/1.73 m2. Demographic, clinical, laboratory, and echocardiographic data were collected for all patients. Comparative analyses were performed to assess differences in cardiovascular risk factors, comorbidities, laboratory parameters, and echocardiographic findings between the two groups. Results: The proportion of men was significantly higher in the non-CKD group, whereas women predominated in the CKD group (p < 0.001). Dyspnea, orthopnea, leg swelling, claudication, and expectoration were significantly more frequent in patients with CKD, while chest pain and palpitations were more common in the non-CKD group (all p < 0.05). A significant difference in the distribution of NYHA functional classes was observed between the groups (p < 0.001), with NYHA class IV being more prevalent in the CKD group and classes II and III more frequent in the non-CKD group. Levels of CRP and NT-proBNP were significantly higher in the CKD group (p < 0.001). In-hospital mortality was 2.5-fold higher in patients with CKD (28.6% vs. 11.1%; p < 0.001). Conclusions: Coexistence of CKD was associated with a more severe clinical presentation, advanced functional limitation, and a distinct laboratory and echocardiographic profile in CHF patients. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Insights into the Management of Cardiovascular Disease Risk Factors)
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16 pages, 856 KB  
Article
Predictors of Escalation of Lipid-Lowering Therapy with Subanalysis of the Influence of Lipoprotein (a) on the Decision-Making Process
by Paweł Muszyński, Kinga Natalia Dudzińska, Marlena Święcicka, Wiktoria Grądzka-Matys, Małgorzata Chlabicz, Dominika Musiałowska, Joanna Kruszyńska, Piotr Kazberuk, Urszula Bajda and Anna Tomaszuk-Kazberuk
Diseases 2026, 14(1), 8; https://doi.org/10.3390/diseases14010008 - 27 Dec 2025
Viewed by 389
Abstract
Background/Objectives: Cardiovascular diseases are the leading cause of death worldwide. The preventive efforts to reduce the burden are crucial. Primary causes of cardiovascular diseases include lipid disorders. The variety of available medications influences cardiovascular risk and allows for improvement. However, discontinuation or infrequent [...] Read more.
Background/Objectives: Cardiovascular diseases are the leading cause of death worldwide. The preventive efforts to reduce the burden are crucial. Primary causes of cardiovascular diseases include lipid disorders. The variety of available medications influences cardiovascular risk and allows for improvement. However, discontinuation or infrequent initiation of lipid-lowering therapies remains a problem. This study aimed to investigate predictors of lipid-lowering therapy escalation. Methods: 431 patients with known concentrations of Lipoprotein (a) (Lp (a)) acquired as part of routine cardiovascular risk assessment from the HELPE-R registry, hospitalised in the University Clinical Hospital in Białystok were included in this study. Escalation of treatment was defined as the initiation of any form of lowering therapy or an increase in the potency or dose of statins. The analysis of the influence of various factors on the decision about escalation was performed. Results: The median age was 69.00 years. The escalation of therapy occurred in 48.49% of patients. Not reaching the LDL-C goal was the strongest predictor of escalation (OR: 9.177). The other factors increasing the probability of escalation included acute coronary syndrome (OR: 3.913), prediabetes (OR: 2.372), chronic coronary syndrome (OR: 2.217), dyslipidemia (OR: 2.354), hypertension (OR: 1.734), carotid artery stenosis (OR: 1.625), and obesity (OR: 1.543). There was no effect of past MI and stroke on the escalation of lipid profile. Lp (a) did not affect the escalation. Conclusions: The decision about escalation of lipid-lowering therapy is mainly influenced by classical risk factors and established atherosclerotic disease. Lp (a) did not affect the escalation, despite growing interest among medical practitioners. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Insights into the Management of Cardiovascular Disease Risk Factors)
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27 pages, 1422 KB  
Article
Stress, Anxiety, and Self-Efficacy in Hypertension: Evidence from a Romanian Case—Control Study
by Lucia Bubulac, Mirela Zivari, Irina Anca Eremia, Constantin Erena, Consuela-Mădălina Gheorghe, Iuliana-Raluca Gheorghe, Viorica Tudor, Claudia Florina Bogdan-Andreescu, Emin Cadar and Cristina-Crenguța Albu
Diseases 2025, 13(11), 373; https://doi.org/10.3390/diseases13110373 - 13 Nov 2025
Viewed by 1484
Abstract
Background: Hypertension and psychological distress often coexist, though evidence from Eastern Europe is still limited. Stress, anxiety, and self-efficacy influence blood pressure control and treatment adherence. Their effect on hypertension prevention and treatment has not been systematically evaluated in Romania. Aim: This study [...] Read more.
Background: Hypertension and psychological distress often coexist, though evidence from Eastern Europe is still limited. Stress, anxiety, and self-efficacy influence blood pressure control and treatment adherence. Their effect on hypertension prevention and treatment has not been systematically evaluated in Romania. Aim: This study evaluated the associations between stress, anxiety, and self-efficacy in Romanian adults with and without hypertension to identify modifiable psychological factors relevant for integrated cardiovascular management. Methods: A retrospective case–control study was conducted among 215 adults, including individuals with hypertension and normotensive controls. Participants completed validated questionnaires assessing stress vulnerability, perceived stress, state and trait anxiety, self-efficacy, and Type A behavior, together with demographic and occupational data. Results: Hypertensive participants reported higher stress vulnerability, perceived stress, and anxiety, as well as lower self-efficacy, compared with controls. Type A behavior showed no association with hypertension. These differences remained consistent after accounting for demographic characteristics. Conclusions: Hypertension in Romanian adults is associated with a distinct psycho-emotional profile characterized by elevated stress and anxiety and reduced self-efficacy. Type A personality showed no association. The results emphasize the importance of recognizing and addressing modifiable psychological determinants in hypertension care. Integrating psychosocial assessment with personalized interventions, including mindfulness-based approaches, digital health support, and nurse-led telemonitoring, could improve treatment adherence, reduce emotional burden, and contribute to overall cardiovascular health. This region-specific evidence supports expanding hypertension management to include psychological care alongside standard medical approaches. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Insights into the Management of Cardiovascular Disease Risk Factors)
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13 pages, 696 KB  
Article
Blood Urea/Creatinine Ratio and Mortality in Ambulatory Patients with Heart Failure with Reduced Ejection Fraction
by Andrew S. Oswald, Muhammad S. Hussain, Mohsin H. K. Roshan, Filippo Pigazzani, Anna-Maria Choy, Faisel Khan, Ify R. Mordi and Chim C. Lang
Diseases 2025, 13(11), 362; https://doi.org/10.3390/diseases13110362 - 7 Nov 2025
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 763
Abstract
Background: Chronic heart failure with reduced ejection fraction (HFrEF) is associated with high mortality, and renal dysfunction is common in these patients. Blood urea/creatinine ratio (UCR) has been identified as a potential prognostic marker, reflecting both renal function and neurohormonal activity. We assessed [...] Read more.
Background: Chronic heart failure with reduced ejection fraction (HFrEF) is associated with high mortality, and renal dysfunction is common in these patients. Blood urea/creatinine ratio (UCR) has been identified as a potential prognostic marker, reflecting both renal function and neurohormonal activity. We assessed whether a UCR ≥ 95 at discharge from an outpatient service was associated with increased mortality. Methods: This retrospective study reviewed 337 patients (age 72.7 ± 14.3 years; 64.7% Male; Mean LVEF 33.2 ± 8.9%) with HFrEF referred to the Heart Failure Nurse Service at NHS Tayside for optimisation of heart failure medication. Cox proportional hazards models were used to assess the association between UCR and all-cause mortality. Results: Receiver operating characteristic (ROC) analysis identified a UCR threshold of 95 (area under the curve [AUC] 0.701) as predictive of mortality. Results demonstrated that a UCR ≥ 95 was independently associated with increased mortality (HR 1.85, 95% CI 1.09–3.14, p = 0.022). A high UCR was associated with increased mortality even in patients with preserved eGFR, a group typically considered at lower risk (HR 4.03, 95% CI 1.50–10.9, p = 0.006). Conclusions: These findings suggest that UCR could be a useful addition for identifying high-risk patients who may benefit from closer monitoring and more aggressive intervention following optimisation of heart failure medication. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Insights into the Management of Cardiovascular Disease Risk Factors)
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Review

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20 pages, 1161 KB  
Review
The Systemic Link Between Oral Health and Cardiovascular Disease: Contemporary Evidence, Mechanisms, and Risk Factor Implications
by Florinel Cosmin Bida, Florin Razvan Curca, Raoul-Vasile Lupusoru, Dragos Ioan Virvescu, Mihaela Scurtu, Gabriel Rotundu, Oana Maria Butnaru, Teona Tudorici, Ionut Luchian and Dana Gabriela Budala
Diseases 2025, 13(11), 354; https://doi.org/10.3390/diseases13110354 - 31 Oct 2025
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 3397
Abstract
Background: Oral health plays a critical role in systemic wellbeing, with growing evidence supporting strong associations between oral conditions and cardiovascular disease (CVD). These connections extend beyond periodontal disease and involve oral microbiota imbalance, systemic inflammation, and oral side effects of cardiovascular pharmacotherapy. [...] Read more.
Background: Oral health plays a critical role in systemic wellbeing, with growing evidence supporting strong associations between oral conditions and cardiovascular disease (CVD). These connections extend beyond periodontal disease and involve oral microbiota imbalance, systemic inflammation, and oral side effects of cardiovascular pharmacotherapy. Objective: To explore these links, a narrative literature review was performed using PubMed, Scopus, and ScienceDirect, covering studies published between 2000 and 2025. Methods: A comprehensive literature search was conducted in PubMed, Scopus, and ScienceDirect for studies published between January 2000 and May 2025. Both MeSH and free-text terms related to oral health, periodontal disease, systemic inflammation, endothelial dysfunction, and atherosclerosis were used. Eligible studies included observational and interventional research, systematic reviews, and meta-analyses. Key findings: The evidence consistently supports an association between chronic periodontal inflammation and cardiovascular risk, mediated by systemic dissemination of proinflammatory cytokines (IL-6, TNF-α, CRP) and microbial products that promote endothelial activation and atherogenesis. Interventional data indicate that periodontal therapy may reduce systemic inflammatory burden and improve vascular parameters, though heterogeneity across studies limits causal inference. Conclusions: Current findings highlight a significant oral–systemic connection through inflammatory and endothelial mechanisms. Strengthening interdisciplinary collaboration between dental and cardiovascular care providers is essential to translate this evidence into preventive and therapeutic practice. Further longitudinal and mechanistic studies are required to confirm causality and guide clinical integration. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Insights into the Management of Cardiovascular Disease Risk Factors)
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