Search Results (10,762)

We introduce the Soil–Plant Coupling Principle (SPCP), a conceptual framework proposing that ecosystem stability emerges from the integrity of biological interactions rather than the condition of individual ecosystem components. Although current ecological assessments primarily rely on soil properties, plant performance, and microbial diversity, growing evidence indicates that ecosystems can remain apparently functional while progressively losing the coordination among processes that sustain resilience. This gap limits the ability of conventional diagnostics to capture interactional changes underlying early ecosystem vulnerability. Unlike ecosystem multifunctionality and resilience, which primarily describe the provision of multiple functions and the capacity to resist or recover from disturbance, respectively, SPCP focuses on the coordination among the processes that sustain these functions and resilience. SPCP reframes ecosystem degradation as progressive decoupling among carbon allocation, nutrient cycling, hydrological processes, and microbial interactions at the soil–plant interface. By integrating recent advances in soil ecology, plant physiology, microbiome science, ecological networks, and biogeochemistry, the framework provides a unified conceptual basis for understanding how interactional connectivity regulates ecosystem resilience. The objectives of this Perspective are to: (i) establish the theoretical basis for viewing ecosystem stability through soil–plant coupling; (ii) define the core dimensions of coupling integrity; and (iii) outline how coupling integrity could be operationalized using structural, functional, and interaction-based indicators. We further discuss the potential of coupling integrity as an early-warning property and identify key limitations and research needs for testing and validating the framework. By proposing an integrative and potentially testable framework, the manuscript provides a new lens for understanding ecosystem vulnerability and resilience across scales. Full article

Organic amendments can alter soil structure, root development, and carbon cycling, yet their coordinated effects remain unclear. Based on a long-term field microplot experiment established in 2009, four amendment systems with equivalent annual N, P, and K inputs but differing in amendment properties and nominal annual organic-material C inputs were compared: maize straw with NPK (CS), pig manure compost with NPK (PMC), biochar with NPK (BIO), and biochar-based fertilizer (BF). After 15 years, dry-sieved aggregate distribution, CT-resolved air-filled pores (>30 μm), peanut root morphology, and easily oxidizable organic carbon (EOC), microbial biomass carbon (MBC), and dissolved organic carbon (DOC) were determined. PMC had the highest CT-resolved total and connected porosities (19.01% and 10.86%), a greater proportion of small macroaggregates, and the largest root surface area. CS produced a greater proportion and mean size of large dry-sieved aggregates and the highest bulk-soil MBC content. BIO and BF showed lower CT-resolved total porosity but greater isolated porosity, anisotropy, mean pore diameter, and pore fractal dimension (collectively termed CT-resolved macropore heterogeneity); these treatments were also associated with greater root volume or length and increased EOC and DOC contents in small macroaggregate- and microaggregate-sized fractions. Root length correlated more strongly with macropore heterogeneity than with total porosity. Because measurements were obtained once from 12 microplots, these relationships and SEM results represent exploratory associations rather than causal pathways. Overall, traditional amendments were associated with aggregation or macropore connectivity, whereas carbonized amendments were associated with greater macropore heterogeneity. BF had the highest percentage of EOC in TOC (52.45%), indicating a greater relative contribution of labile carbon, not increased stable carbon stock. Full article

High-dimensional environmental covariates are increasingly available for digital soil mapping (DSM), but their effective use depends on both the feature-selection strategy and the predictive model architecture. However, systematic evidence remains limited regarding how different metaheuristic feature-selection methods interact with standalone and hybrid learning models across multiple soil and groundwater prediction tasks. This study systematically evaluated the interactions between 10 metaheuristic feature-selection algorithms and 13 predictive models, including random forest (RF), convolutional neural network (CNN), recurrent architectures, CNN–recurrent neural network (RNN) hybrids, squeeze-and-excitation (SE)-enhanced hybrids, and iTransformer-based hybrids, across four prediction tasks involving soil organic carbon (SOC), soil–water extract electrical conductivity (ECe), apparent electrical conductivity (ECa), and groundwater level (GWL) in Xinjiang, China. A total of 149 candidate environmental covariates were considered for ECe, SOC, and ECa, whereas 122 candidate covariates were considered for GWL. The results showed that no single feature-selection method consistently performed best across all four targets; instead, predictive performance depended on the interaction among the feature-selection strategy, predictive architecture, and target variable. CNN–RNN hybrid architectures generally achieved higher predictive performance than standalone models, although their benefits varied among prediction targets. The best-performing combinations yielded coefficient of determination (R²) values of 0.9826, 0.6981, 0.8429, and 0.8085 for GWL, SOC, ECe, and ECa, respectively. These findings indicate that target-specific compatibility, rather than aggressive dimensionality reduction or a universally superior algorithm, is a key determinant of predictive performance in high-dimensional DSM. By demonstrating that feature-selection effectiveness is jointly influenced by model architecture and target characteristics, this study provides a methodological reference for developing target-specific digital soil mapping models in arid regions. Full article

Bauxite mining causes severe soil degradation in the ecologically fragile karst region of Southwest China, yet targeted vegetation restoration schemes remain poorly developed. This study aimed to screen promising selected restoration species and preliminarily explore their soil improvement characteristics in karst bauxite mine wastelands through a field observational survey. We investigated six vegetation-soil conditions at 0–10 cm topsoil (two-year monocultures of Robinia pseudoacacia, Ligustrum lucidum, Zea mays, Miscanthus sinensis, topsoil from >15-year Z. mays with straw return, and unvegetated bare land), alongside paired 10–20 cm subsoil from the same long-term Z. mays stand as a depth-profile reference, and analyzed soil physicochemical properties, enzyme activities, and bacterial/fungal communities via high-throughput sequencing. Results showed that vegetation cover neutralized strongly acidic mine soil and significantly increased soil organic matter (SOM), total nitrogen (TN), and available nutrients compared with the bare control (p < 0.05). The long-term Z. mays cropland showed the strongest soil nutrient accumulation, with topsoil SOM, available phosphorus, and available potassium, increased by 428.6%, 250.0%, and 65.3%, respectively, relative to the bare control. Notably, the subsoil of long-term Z. mays also maintained high nutrient levels, but its absolute values are not directly comparable with topsoil treatments due to different sampling depths. All vegetation conditions elevated soil enzyme activities and microbial alpha diversity and significantly shifted bacterial and fungal community structure (beta diversity) compared with the control. Several bacterial phyla (including Chloroflexi and Proteobacteria) that have been associated with carbon-cycling functions in prior studies were relatively more abundant in revegetated soils; however, their functional roles in this system remain to be verified. Redundancy analysis identified SOM, TN, and available potassium as key environmental correlates of bacterial community variation. Overall, the long-term crop–straw return pattern shows comprehensive soil improvement effects, providing observational baseline data and reference for ecological restoration of karst bauxite mining areas in Southwest China. Full article

Panax ginseng, a high-value medicinal plant, faces substantial yield losses due to black spot disease, while conventional chemical controls cause pesticide residues and soil ecological damage, necessitating green biocontrol strategies. Here, two antagonistic strains, Bacillus sp. WY17 and WY26, were isolated from the surface-sterilized internal root tissues of 10-year-old ginseng. Through systematic optimization of carbon/nitrogen sources, inorganic salts, and fermentation parameters (temperature, pH, agitation, inoculum size, and duration), the optimal culture conditions were established. The optimal consortium consisted of WY17 and WY26 in a 2:1 ratio (WY17:WY26 = 2:1), which achieved an antifungal inhibition rate of 84.94% against the pathogen compared to the untreated control group (pathogen only). Mechanistic investigations revealed that the crude protein extract exerted its antifungal effect by compromising the integrity of the pathogen’s cell membrane, leading to increased permeability and leakage of intra-cellular contents, and produced cell wall-degrading enzymes (chitinase and β-1,3-glucanase), thereby inhibiting mycelial growth and spore germination. In vitro efficacy tests demonstrated that this crude protein extract performed comparably to the chemical fungicide 70% mancozeb, with no statistically significant difference observed between them (p > 0.05). These findings identify a promising compound biocontrol agent derived from indigenous Bacillus strains, offering an effective and environmentally friendly alternative for managing ginseng black spot disease. Full article

Biochar (BC) and hydrochar (HC) have attracted increasing attention as sustainable soil amendments for improving soil water retention and mitigating agricultural water stress. This review synthesizes and compares the current state of knowledge on the production, physicochemical properties, and hydraulic performance of slow-pyrolysis BC, hydrothermal carbonization hydrochar (HTC HC), and hydrothermal liquefaction hydrochar (HTL HC). The mechanisms governing soil water retention are first examined, followed by a comprehensive review of the effects of amendment properties, feedstock type, thermochemical conversion conditions, particle size, application rate, and soil characteristics on field capacity, permanent wilting point, plant-available water, and water-holding capacity. The available evidence demonstrates that BC generally provides the most consistent improvement in soil hydraulic properties, particularly in coarse-textured soils, whereas the performance of HTC HC is considerably more variable and strongly dependent on hydrothermal conversion conditions and soil characteristics. HTL HC remains largely unexplored but shows promising hydraulic performance and exceptional resistance to biodegradation. Apparently contradictory findings among published studies are shown to arise largely from interactions among feedstock and conversion conditions, resulting amendment properties, soil characteristics, application conditions, and differences in hydraulic evaluation, highlighting the need for integrated mechanistic frameworks rather than interpretation based on individual factors. A comparative assessment of the three materials further considers ecotoxicity, biodegradation, life-cycle assessment, and techno-economic analysis. Overall, BC is currently the most mature soil amendment technology, HTC HC offers important advantages for wet biomass utilization, and HTL HC represents a promising but underdeveloped alternative. Future research should emphasize standardized evaluation methods, long-term field validation, and integrated mechanistic approaches linking production conditions, amendment properties, soil characteristics, and application conditions to enable predictive, application-specific design of carbonaceous soil amendments for sustainable soil water management. Full article

Soil organic carbon (SOC) stocks are strongly influenced by land use, vegetation condition and climate, particularly in heterogeneous mountain catchments. This study quantified SOC stocks and simulated long-term SOC dynamics in the Çapakçur micro-catchment, eastern Türkiye, by integrating field assessment, geostatistical prediction, uncertainty analysis, inverse RothC calibration and scenario modelling. A total of 428 soil samples were collected from the 0–30 cm layer across forest, degraded forest, and pasture areas. SOC stocks were calculated from SOC concentration, bulk density and soil depth, and spatially predicted using ordinary kriging of log-transformed SOC stocks. RothC was calibrated for each land-use class to estimate the annual carbon inputs required to maintain observed SOC stocks, followed by 50-year restoration and climate-sensitivity simulations. SOC stocks ranged from 7.69 to 247.68 Mg C ha⁻¹, averaging 55.52 Mg C ha⁻¹. Forest had the highest mean SOC stock (78.5 Mg C ha⁻¹), followed by pasture (55.9) and degraded forest (50.2 Mg C ha⁻¹). Required annual carbon inputs were 5.17, 4.58 and 3.29 Mg C ha⁻¹ yr⁻¹, respectively. Increasing degraded forest carbon inputs to forest-equivalent levels increased SOC by 14.76 Mg C ha⁻¹ over 50 years, equivalent to 37.77 Gg C or 138.49 Gg CO₂eq at the catchment scale. A stronger restoration scenario increased this potential to 63.77 Gg C. Warming caused SOC losses, with +2 °C reducing catchment SOC by 56.78 Gg C. These findings demonstrate the potential of degraded forest restoration for SOC sequestration while highlighting the vulnerability of long-term SOC gains to climate warming. Full article

Organic amendments derived from agro-livestock residues offer a promising approach for soil restoration and nutrient recycling within circular economy frameworks. Nevertheless, their agronomic efficacy and environmental suitability may be contingent upon the formulation of the amendments and the properties of the soil. This study presents a preliminary evaluation of customized organic amendments derived from solid materials, such as biochar and green compost, and liquid residues, including cattle manure slurry, urban compost tea, and cattle digestate. These were applied either individually or as solid–liquid mixtures to two distinct Iberian soils. The study involved amendment characterization, seed germination assays, and a two-month greenhouse experiment with barley (Hordeum vulgare L.) to assess the effects on soil physicochemical properties, microbial activity, and plant development. The solid–liquid impregnation process facilitated the transfer of nutrients and potentially limiting elements from liquid residues to solid matrices, thereby altering amendment composition and mitigating some risks associated with the direct application of liquid residues. Mixtures based on biochar and compost generally alleviated excessive salinity and trace metal constraints, although responses varied depending on the liquid amendment and soil type. Biochar-containing amendments markedly increased soil total carbon, suggesting their potential to contribute to soil carbon sequestration. The effects of amendments were strongly dependent on soil type: acidic soil exhibited more pronounced pH improvement, whereas the carbonate-rich alkaline soil buffered several chemical changes but was more susceptible to alkalinization and sodium inputs. Urban compost tea consistently exhibited inhibitory effects on germination, plant development, and dehydrogenase activity, although these effects were partially mitigated when combined with solid amendments. Overall, the findings underscore the potential of tailored amendment mixtures to enhance residue valorisation, while highlighting the necessity for soil-specific evaluation prior to field application. Full article

Sustainable soil health management is a major challenge for modern agriculture, particularly under increasing water constraints and progressive soil degradation, prompting the evaluation of innovative soil conditioners such as water-soluble polymers. This study assessed the effects of the anionic copolymer SNF FLOBOND™ DI 2010 (FDI2010) on soil physical structure and microbial properties through three complementary experiments, including one lysimeter trial and two controlled microcosm incubations using contrasting agricultural soils under different moisture regimes. The results consistently showed a significant improvement in soil aggregate stability following polymer application, while effects on water retention were variable and dependent on soil type and moisture conditions, with clearer improvements observed under drought conditions and in lysimeter setups. Microbial responses were largely indirect, with increased respiration and enzymatic activities but no significant change in total microbial biomass. Under water-limited conditions, FDI2010 contributed to sustaining microbial activity, particularly for carbon and nitrogen mineralization. Overall, these findings indicate that FDI2010 primarily enhances soil structural stability and indirectly supports microbial functioning, highlighting its potential as a soil conditioner to improve soil resilience to hydric stress, although further field validation remains necessary. Full article

The interplay between water-saving irrigation and potassium (K) management in regulating paddy methane (CH₄) emissions remains poorly understood. It remains unclear whether carbon pool enhancement induced by K fertilization could counteract the oxidation effects under non-flooded irrigation. Here, we conducted a field-based trial over two years to explore how irrigation regimes (continuous flooding, I_F; intermittent irrigation, I_I) and K application rates (K₀, K₇₅, K₁₅₀ kg ha⁻¹) modify soil redox status, carbon pools, crop growth, CH₄ emissions and economic benefits. Intermittent irrigation markedly elevated soil redox potential (Eh), suppressed dissolved organic carbon (DOC), and substantially reduced two-year average CH₄ emissions by 75.1–76.9%, regardless of K supply. Under I_F, high-rate K fertilization (K₁₅₀) stimulated cumulative CH₄ emissions; nevertheless, such K-driven CH₄ stimulation was completely offset under intermittent irrigation. Soil Eh, DOC and microbial biomass carbon (MBC) dominated CH₄ variation, among which Eh exerted the primary control. Intermittent irrigation combined with K fertilization improved rice grain yield. A comprehensive TOPSIS-Entropy multi-criteria evaluation identified the I_IK₇₅ treatment as the optimal option balancing environmental benefits and economic returns. Collectively, intermittent irrigation can mitigate the methanogenic risk from high potassium input, providing a promising redox-regulated strategy for low-CH₄ emission and high rice production. Full article

To evaluate how composted agricultural and forestry organic materials function as components of horticultural growing media, a pot experiment was conducted with chrysanthemum (Chrysanthemum morifolium Ramat.) grown in a cinnamon-soil-based medium. The composted material, produced from chestnut shells, chicken manure, and spent mushroom substrate, was incorporated at 0%, 5%, 10%, 15%, 20%, 25%, 30%, 35%, 40%, 45%, and 50% (v/v). Water-extractable dissolved organic matter (WE-DOM) was characterized by excitation-emission matrix fluorescence spectroscopy coupled with parallel factor analysis (EEM-PARAFAC), together with the fluorescence index (FI), biological index (BIX), humification index (HIX), and fluorescence regional integration (FRI). Growing-medium physicochemical properties, chrysanthemum traits, and an entropy-weighted comprehensive evaluation were also assessed. Compost amendment increased soil organic matter (SOM), dissolved organic carbon (DOC), total nitrogen, and total phosphorus, lowered pH, and was associated with improved porosity and water-retention characteristics. FI ranged from 1.810 to 2.371 and exceeded 1.9 at amendment rates of 30–35%, suggesting a greater contribution from microbially derived DOM. BIX, HIX, and P_V,n/P_Ⅲ,n were generally higher in amended treatments than in the control, although their responses were non-monotonic across amendment rates, suggesting greater contributions from recently produced DOM and stronger humification-related fluorescence signals. EEM-PARAFAC resolved five fluorescent components. C1, C2, C3, and C5 were predominantly humic-like, whereas C4 displayed both protein-like and humic-like features. With increasing amendment rate, the relative contributions of C1–C4 generally increased, whereas that of C5 declined, suggesting a shift from the native soil fluorescence profile toward a more complex DOM composition influenced by compost inputs and subsequent biological transformation. Chrysanthemum height, stem diameter, flower number, and biomass were generally more favorable at amendment rates of 30–40%. The entropy-weighted evaluation yielded the highest overall response score at 30%, while the 35% treatment also maintained a high score. Considering WE-DOM fluorescence characteristics, growing-medium properties, and plant performance together, a volumetric amendment rate of 30–35% represents a relatively favorable range for the tested composted material under the present pot-experiment conditions. Full article

Agricultural biomass fly ash (BFA) has attracted increasing interest as a liming material and nutrient source for acidic soils, although its effects on trace element availability and plant accumulation remain insufficiently understood. This study characterized agricultural BFA and evaluated its short-term effects on soil chemical properties, nutrient and trace element availability, and trace element concentrations in maize biomass. Unlike previous studies focusing primarily on biomass ash characterization or crop performance, this study integrates biomass fly ash characterization with post-harvest soil properties, nutrient and trace element availability, and trace element accumulation in maize biomass. A 60-day greenhouse pot experiment was conducted in an acidic loamy sand using BFA and commercial agricultural lime (CAL) applied at rates corresponding to 0.5×, 1.0×, and 1.5× soil hydrolytic acidity. Both amendments increased soil pH, reduced hydrolytic acidity, and increased base saturation, although CAL produced a stronger liming effect. BFA supplied substantially more K and Mg and increased soil total carbon and electrical conductivity, while CAL was more effective in increasing Ca availability. Changes in soil trace element availability were generally limited, although Zn and Cr increased after BFA application. Trace element responses in maize biomass were element-specific: concentrations of Fe, Cu, Co, and Cd increased, Mn decreased, and Zn and Ni showed no consistent dose-dependent pattern. Nevertheless, the concentrations measured in maize remained within ranges commonly reported for plants grown on uncontaminated soils. PCA supported the contrasting effects of the amendments, associating BFA more strongly with nutrient availability, total carbon, and electrical conductivity and CAL with soil deacidification and Ca enrichment. Under the conditions of this short-term pot experiment, agricultural BFA improved selected chemical properties of acidic soil without causing pronounced increases in trace element accumulation in maize biomass. Field-scale and long-term studies, including chromium speciation, are required before broader agricultural application can be recommended. Full article

Plantations dominated by different tree species can differ in soil nutrient cycling and microbial community assembly, but corresponding bacterial and fungal patterns have not been characterized for mature plantation stands and a natural secondary forest in the Longmen Mountains of southwestern China. This study compared a natural secondary forest (SF) with four plantations, Magnolia officinalis (MO), Juglans regia (JR), Larix gmelinii (LG), and Cryptomeria japonica (CJ), in the Longmen Mountains of southwestern China, and investigated soil physicochemical properties, enzyme activities, bacterial and fungal community composition, co-occurrence networks, and predicted functional profiles in the 0–20 and 20–40 cm soil layers. The results showed that stand type was associated with total nitrogen (TN; p = 0.012), dissolved organic carbon (DOC; p < 0.001), dissolved organic nitrogen (DON; p < 0.001), and urease activity (p = 0.018), whereas pH differed between soil layers (p = 0.024) but not among stand types (p = 0.270). Relative to SF topsoil, DOC was 29.2% higher in JR and 36.1% higher in LG, while DON was 42.0% higher in JR and 51.4% higher in LG. TN and DON also showed stand type × soil layer interactions. None of the bacterial or fungal Chao1, Shannon, or Simpson indices showed significant stand type, soil layer, or interaction effects. In contrast, PERMANOVA indicated that bacterial and fungal community composition differed among the sampled stand types (p < 0.05), and fungal community composition also differed between the two soil layers (p < 0.05), whereas bacterial community composition did not. Paired partial dbRDA indicated that the integrated soil environmental gradients represented by the first three PCA axes were associated with bacterial community composition (R² = 0.083, p = 0.012), whereas the corresponding association was not significant for fungi (R² = 0.080, p = 0.371). Within the retained co-occurrence network analysis, MO had the most complex bacterial network, and JR had the most complex fungal network. PICRUSt2-predicted profiles were dominated by metabolism (38.6%–39.3%), but no bacterial KEGG Level 1 category or FUNGuild trophic-mode category showed a stand type, soil layer, or interaction effect after correction for multiple testing. These findings indicate that differences among the sampled stands were expressed more clearly in active carbon and nitrogen pools and microbial community composition than in alpha diversity or broad predicted functional profiles. Full article

A carbide-slag-activated slag-fly ash geopolymer (CSF) and waste gold tailings sand were used to co-stabilize mucky soil, aiming to promote the valorization of multiple industrial solid wastes and provide a low-carbon treatment approach for mucky soil in river and lake regions. Unconfined compression, direct shear, water stability, scanning electron microscopy coupled with energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (SEM-EDS), and heavy metal leaching tests were conducted to investigate the effects of CSF and gold tailings sand contents on the mechanical properties, water stability, microstructure, and environmental safety of the stabilized soil. The results showed that the unconfined compressive strength (UCS) and shear strength increased with increasing CSF content, whereas the strength gain became marginal when the CSF content exceeded 15%. With the CSF content fixed at 15%, both the strength and water stability initially increased and then decreased as the gold tailings sand content increased. The CSF15-G30 specimen exhibited favorable overall performance, with 7 d and 28 d UCS values of 0.65 and 1.53 MPa, respectively, representing increases of 25.0% and 12.5% relative to CSF15. Its cohesion and internal friction angle reached 88.21 kPa and 47.13°, corresponding to increases of 44.5% and 8.1%, respectively. The water stability coefficients at 7 d and 28 d were 76.9% and 87.6%, respectively. SEM-EDS observations indicated that the cementitious products generated by CSF, together with the filling and skeletal effects of gold tailings sand, enhanced interparticle bonding and matrix densification. Although the concentrations of leached heavy metals increased with increasing gold tailings sand content, all measured values remained below the relevant leaching-toxicity limits. These results demonstrate that an appropriate amount of gold tailings sand can effectively improve the mechanical properties and water stability of CSF-stabilized mucky soil while maintaining satisfactory environmental compatibility. Full article

The intensive use of mineral fertilizers in horticultural systems has improved crop productivity but also increased concerns regarding soil degradation and environmental sustainability. In this context, vermicompost derived from buffalo manure may represent a sustainable alternative for nutrient management and organic waste valorization. This study evaluated the effects of four fertilization strategies on tomato (Solanum lycopersicum L.) grown in loam and clay soils: unfertilized control, mineral fertilization, vermicompost applied at an equivalent nitrogen rate, and the residual effect of vermicompost from a previous cauliflower crop. Agronomic performance, fruit quality, carbon and nitrogen metabolism, and antioxidant-related traits were assessed. Mineral fertilization produced the highest marketable yield, reaching 9.68 and 7.69 kg m⁻² in loam and clay soils, respectively, mainly through increased fruit number. Direct vermicompost application maintained substantial productivity, with yields of 7.55 and 5.18 kg m⁻² in the two soils. The fertilization strategies also induced distinct changes in fruit composition. Mineral fertilization increased total free amino acids to approximately 160 mg g⁻¹ DW, mainly through the accumulation of glutamine, glutamate, asparagine and γ-aminobutyric acid, but was associated with lower soluble solids and antioxidant activity. Vermicompost promoted the highest lycopene concentration, approximately 2.1 mg g⁻¹ DW, in clay soil and maintained intermediate antioxidant activity and amino acid concentrations. Soil texture also influenced carbohydrate partitioning, with greater fructose accumulation in clay soil and greater starch accumulation in loam soil. The residual vermicompost treatment alone did not adequately sustain tomato productivity or metabolic activity, particularly in clay soil. Overall, vermicompost partially replaced mineral fertilization while maintaining satisfactory yield and modulating fruit metabolic quality, although its effectiveness depended strongly on soil texture. Full article