Search Results (57)

While there is very limited information on the cost of production (COP) for the emerging 100% grass-fed organic dairy sector, this study (1) estimates the COP using primary data collected from on-farm surveys, (2) assesses the correlation between COP and key production and management factors, (3) examines how land, feed and labor efficiency, and production scale affect the COP, and (4) derives recommendations for enhancing the economic efficiency of grass-fed organic dairy farms. Data collected via annual surveys in the Northeastern United States from 2019 to 2022 were analyzed through descriptive statistics, correlation analysis, hypothesis tests, and regression analysis. At an average cost of USD 45.91 per hundredweight equivalent of milk, the marginal impacts of the cows managed per full time equivalent labor and milk sold per cow on the COP were −USD 0.166 and −USD 0.003, respectively. Conversely, the COP increased by USD 1.44 when the crop acres per cow increased by one unit, and the COP of small farms with less than 45 cows was USD 6.20 higher than other farms. As farms are significantly different in resource endowment and other factors, the strategies for reducing the COP and improving the economic returns should be identified for individual farms. However, our analyses highlight the importance of enhancing labor efficiency in forage production, land management, milking and feeding, improving herd management and optimizing nutrition and dry matter intake to support high milk productivity. This study may help existing grass-fed dairy farms improve their farm management and reduce COP and help prospective farms assess their suitability for transitioning to grass-fed operation. Full article

Dairy cow longevity is a key driver of farm profitability, animal welfare, and environmental sustainability. Despite genetic progress in milk production, the average herd life has declined in many high-yielding dairy systems, raising concerns about early culling. This study analyzed data from 2057 Holstein–Friesian cows in Hungary to characterize the distribution and timing of culling events and to identify major risk factors affecting productive lifespan. We studied age, parity, milk yield, and culling reason using descriptive statistics, Kruskal–Wallis tests, multinomial logistic regression, and Kaplan–Meier survival analysis. Udder health problems were found to be the most frequent cause of culling (22.8%), followed by metabolic disorders (18.2%), locomotive problems (17.3%), and reproductive disorders (17.1%). Economic reasons such as low milk production contributed to a smaller proportion of culling. Most cows were culled after the second or third lactation, with survival probability dropping sharply within the first 1500–2000 days of life. Cows reaching four or more lactations represented a small but economically and genetically valuable subset of the herd. Our results indicated that in Hungary culling decisions are largely determined by health problems, which represent a greater limitation to the productive potential of dairy cows than economic factors. This research recommends that breeding programs prioritize genetic selection for robustness and that herd management adopts preventive health and reproductive strategies to prolong cow longevity, ultimately enhancing the efficiency and sustainability of dairy production systems. Additionally, prevention of animal wastage to foster animal welfare could be suggested as an additional advantage. Full article

Caseous lymphadenitis (CL), caused by Corynebacterium pseudotuberculosis, typically affects small ruminants but is rarely reported in cattle. This case report describes an outbreak of CL in a dairy herd in southern Portugal, where 55 of 500 animals (11%) were clinically affected. Diagnosis was based on characteristic lesions and laboratory confirmation by bacterial culture and PCR. Control measures included isolation, culling, environmental disinfection, and vector management. An autogenous vaccine was prepared from herd isolates and administered under veterinary supervision. No further clinical cases occurred following vaccination. Although immunological and efficacy assessments were not performed, the apparent control of the outbreak suggests that autogenous vaccination, combined with strict biosecurity, may support disease management in atypical hosts. This report underscores the importance of recognizing C. pseudotuberculosis infections in cattle and highlights the need for further evaluation of autogenous vaccines under controlled conditions. Full article

Manure management costs are a substantial component of overall costs on a modern dairy farm. Due to the slim margins of contemporary milk production operations, dairies are under constant pressure to increase milking herd sizes to take advantage of size economies that enable them to compete in the global marketplace. This study provides a current assessment of manure management and overall costs and returns on four standard sizes of dairies typical of the southern Great Plains, particularly north central Texas. The study is necessitated by the fact that the changing economic landscape has resulted in substantial changes in manure management practices. This study also forms the basis for additional analyses that will explore alternative value-added options for dairy manure management. We utilize the Farm-level Economic Model to holistically simulate the costs and returns of four representative dairy herd sizes—small (300 cows), medium (720 cows), large (1500 cows), and very large (5000 cows). Based on prevailing assumptions about land areas farmed and farm management practices, we find that dairy farms require between 0.18 and 0.4 ha/cow to manage manure based on crop nitrogen uptake rates, versus 0.67 to 0.95 ha/cow for crop phosphorus uptake rates. Manure application costs alone range from USD 55/cow (USD 225/ha) to USD 115/cow (USD 300/ha) depending on dairy size, but some of these costs are offset by fertilizer cost savings. Proportion of manure hauled offsite ranges from 9% to 67% for phosphorus-based applications, depending on herd size, and net incomes per cow are reduced by USD 60 to USD 100 (USD 4.33 to USD 8.27 per Mg of milk) if manure is applied based on phosphorus uptake rates as compared to nitrogen uptake rates of receiving crops. Generating a broad array of economically viable value-added product options from dairy manure would enable farmers to be more competitive in a market characterized by thin margins. Full article

This study evaluated the biological and economic impact of twin calvings in a commercial dairy herd located in Harghita County, Romania. Data from 2019 to 2022 were analyzed retrospectively using production, reproductive, and veterinary records. The incidence of twin pregnancies averaged 11.0% across the study period. Mixed-sex pairs were most frequent (55.3%), followed by female–female (28.2%) and male–male (16.5%) combinations. Twin calvings were associated with significant reductions in subsequent milk yield (−742 kg per lactation; p < 0.05), decreased fertility (2.3 vs. 1.4 inseminations; 103 vs. 79 days service period; p < 0.05), and higher veterinary costs (EUR 90 per case). The expected loss of replacement value due to freemartinism was EUR 63 per twin calving. After accounting for a small gain in calf value, the total economic loss was estimated at EUR 379 per twin calving. These findings demonstrate that twin pregnancies, although relatively uncommon, substantially reduce productive efficiency and profitability in dairy systems. Early detection and targeted reproductive management are recommended to mitigate their adverse effects and enhance farm sustainability. Full article

This study investigated cow longevity, culling reasons, and risk factors influencing culling in South African Holstein and Jersey dairy herds. Lactation records of 1,150,625 Jersey and 1,534,875 Holstein cows from 1864 herds, recorded through the National Milk Recording Scheme during the period 2000 to 2019, were analyzed. Longevity was calculated as length of productive life and number of completed lactations. Logistic binary regression was conducted to estimate the odds ratios (OR) for culling among different calving seasons, parities, and herd sizes. Holstein cows had mean productive life of 739.33 ± 434.31 days and 2.37 ± 1.08 lactations, while Jersey cows averaged 696.81 ± 415.44 days productive life and 2.47 ± 1.13 lactations. Leading reasons for culling were infertility (37.94 ± 0.48% Holstein; 30.46 ± 0.63% Jersey), mastitis (18.15 ± 0.38% Holstein and 18.16 ± 0.53% Jersey), and low milk yield (11.76 ± 0.32% Holstein and 19.76 ± 0.55% Jersey). Summer calving, third parity, and small herd size had the highest odds of culling. These findings suggest that herd management practices and selection objectives in South Africa should place high emphasis on cow fertility and udder health. Furthermore, cows calving in summer and those in third parity or small herds require particular attention to minimize culling. Such measures may help to reduce involuntary culling rates and thus increase herd profitability as well as dairy industry sustainability. Full article

Accurate body condition score (BCS) monitoring in dairy cows is essential for optimizing health, productivity, and welfare. Traditional manual scoring methods are labor-intensive and subjective, driving interest in automated imaging-based systems. This study evaluated the effectiveness of 2D imaging and deep learning for BCS classification using three camera perspectives—front, back, and top-down—to identify the most reliable viewpoint. The research involved 56 Norwegian Red milking cows at the Center for Livestock Experiments (SHF) of Norges Miljo-og Biovitenskaplige Universitet (NMBU) in Norway. Images were classified into BCS categories of 2.5, 3.0, and 3.5 using a YOLOv8 model. The back view achieved the highest classification precision (mAP@0.5 = 0.439), confirming that key morphological features for BCS assessment are best captured from this angle. Challenges included misclassification due to overlapping features, especially in Class 2.5 and background data. The study recommends improvements in algorithmic feature extraction, dataset expansion, and multi-view integration to enhance accuracy. Integration with precision farming tools enables continuous monitoring and early detection of health issues. This research highlights the potential of 2D imaging as a cost-effective alternative to 3D systems, particularly for small and medium-sized farms, supporting more effective herd management and improved animal welfare. Full article

Livestock contributes to global warming through greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. Reducing these emissions is an ongoing challenge for the small ruminant sector. Despite its significant role in national economies, limited studies on the carbon footprint (CF) of dairy small ruminants in Mediterranean countries exist. The study aimed to achieve the following: (a) estimate the GHG emissions of eleven semi-extensive sheep and goat farms in a mountainous region of southern Greece, using the Tier 1 and Tier 2 methodologies; (b) compare the outcomes of both methods; and (c) calculate farms’ CF, as a means of their environmental impact evaluation. All on-farm activities (except machinery or medicine use) related to sheep or goat production were considered to estimate GHG emissions. The results show differences between Tier 1 and Tier 2 estimates, reflecting the simplified computational approach of Tier 1. The average CF values estimated via Tier 1 for goat and sheep farms were 2.12 and 2.87 kg CO₂-eq./kg FPCM, respectively. Using Tier 2, these values increased to 2.73 and 3.99 kg CO₂-eq./kg FPCM. To mitigate environmental impact, farms could enhance productivity by improving herd management and feeding strategies. Full article

Dairy farm profitability in the European Union has become increasingly volatile following market deregulation, complicating farm operations and undermining food security amid geopolitical tensions. To address the need for a streamlined analytical tool, this study develops a simulation model of milk production profitability tailored to small, open economies, using Poland as a case study. The model defines a profitability coefficient as the ratio of sector-level milk revenues to feed costs and decomposes it into three dynamic components: production efficiency (milk yield per feed unit), the price spread between milk and feed, and the net effect of policy interventions on revenues and costs. Exogenous variables (milk prices, feed prices, and policy support indices) are projected under baseline, optimistic, and pessimistic scenarios, while endogenous variables (profitability, herd size, and yield) evolve recursively based on estimated lags reflecting biological and economic responses. Simulation results for 2023–2027 indicate that profitability trajectories hinge primarily on price spreads, with policy measures playing a stabilizing but secondary role. Optimistic scenarios yield significant increases in profitability, whereas pessimistic assumptions lead to significant declines. These findings highlight the need to balance key market drivers—such as the relationship between milk prices and feed costs—with appropriately designed support instruments for milk producers. The model provides policymakers with a tool to adjust interventions so that support instruments are effective but do not lead to excessive reliance on public assistance. Full article

Herd management plays a vital role in boosting the productivity, profitability, and sustainability of dairy cooperatives, particularly in developing countries where smallholder farmers are prevalent and have limited access to modern farming technologies. This research presents a dynamic programming (DP) model aimed at helping dairy cooperatives optimize decisions regarding herd structure, specifically focusing on strategies for culling and replacement to match milk supply with varying market demands. The model considers essential traits of dairy cows, including age, milk production, and reproductive condition, to ascertain the best transitions within the herd over several periods. Findings indicate that implementing the proposed DP model can effectively align milk output with fluctuating demand, decrease the gap between supply and demand, and enhance overall herd productivity. While this study uses Thai dairy cooperatives as a case study, the developed model and its insights are relevant to similar smallholder dairy systems in other developing countries, thereby aiding improved decision-making and promoting sustainable herd management practices worldwide. Full article

Biosecurity is essential in livestock farming to prevent the spread of diseases, ensure animal welfare, and maintain farm sustainability. In Portugal, small ruminant farms are predominantly extensive and small-scale, and most of them are familiar, especially in the northern and inland regions. Thus, biosecurity implementation on these farms is low due to factors such as an aging livestock farmer population, poor training, limited veterinary support, and economic constraints. This study, the first to assess biosecurity on Portuguese small ruminant farms, evaluated compliance levels and the influence of sociodemographic factors. A cross-sectional study was conducted between July 2023 and April 2024, through structured interviews with 276 farmers. A 32-question checklist covering nine biosecurity categories was used to assess compliance. The results revealed poor implementation of key biosecurity measures, particularly cleaning and disinfection, quarantine protocols, and visitor control. Inadequate premises infrastructure, including the absence of quarantine areas, isolation facilities for sick animals, and farrowing rooms, further hampered disease prevention. Compliance was influenced by farmers’ age, education level, herd size, and production. Larger farms, particularly dairy farms, demonstrated better biosecurity practices, likely due to better management and infrastructure. This study highlights the challenges of implementing biosecurity measures on small-scale, extensive farms and argues that standardized plans are ineffective. Instead, region- and farm-specific strategies are needed, considering the socioeconomic realities of farmers. Improving farmers’ education and access to veterinary services is crucial. Furthermore, public policies should provide financial incentives and educational programs to improve biosecurity without compromising farm viability. Strengthening biosecurity on small ruminant farms is vital to protecting animal and public health and ensuring the long-term sustainability of rural communities in Portugal. Full article

Anaerobic digesters fed with dairy cow slurry struggle to achieve economic viability, particularly when animals are housed seasonally, so additional feedstocks are usually required. This study applied experimentally derived data from the co-digestion of cow slurry (CS) and food waste (FW) to the UK dairy herd as a whole, and at average (AH) and large (LH) herd sizes of 160 and 770 animals, respectively. The experimental data confirmed stable operation at an organic loading rate (OLR) of 5 g VS L⁻¹ day⁻¹ at CS:FW ratios of 3:1 and 6:1 on a wet weight basis, and these parameters were considered for both AH and LH by herd size and country (Scotland, England, Wales, Northern Ireland) in order to provide energy production and policy observations. The results showed that these scenarios could provide between 959 to 23,867 GJ per year, and that a targeted policy intervention could affect slurry treatment from a significant number of animals in a relatively small number of large herds across the UK. For a more detailed analysis, better data are required on non-domestic FW arisings and FW transportation needs. Full article

This cross-sectional study assessed the prevalence, bacterial distribution, antimicrobial susceptibility, and potential risk factors associated with subclinical mastitis (SCM) in small-holder dairy herds in Gansu Province, Northwest China. Forty small-holder cow farms were randomly selected from eight cities/counties in six districts of Gansu Province, and a total of n = 530 lactating cows were included in this study. SCM prevalence was noted at 38.87% and 9.72% at the cow and quarter levels, respectively, based on the California Mastitis Test (CMT). The prevalence of the recovered bacterial species was noted as follows: S. agalactiae (36.02%), S. aureus (19.43%), coagulase-negative staphylococci (CNS) (16.11%), S. dysgalactiae (12.80%), E. coli (9.00%), and S. uberis (6.64%). All isolated bacteria were 100% multi-drug-resistant (MDR) except S. aureus (87.8% MDR). Antimicrobial susceptibility profiles revealed the increased resistance (>85%) of these pathogens to penicillin, streptomycin, trimethoprim–sulfamethoxazole, vancomycin, and erythromycin. However, these pathogens showed increased susceptibility to ampicillin, amoxicillin–sulbactam, ceftazidime, neomycin, kanamycin, spectinomycin, norfloxacin, ciprofloxacin, and doxycycline. The multivariate regression analysis demonstrated that old age, high parity, late lactation, lesions on teats, previous history of clinical mastitis, higher milk yield, and milking training were found to be potential risk factors (p < 0.001) associated with developing SCM in small-holder dairy cows in Gansu Province, China. These findings highlight the need for routine surveillance, antimicrobial stewardship, and effective preventive strategies to mitigate SCM in small-holder dairy production and their possible impacts, i.e., increased antimicrobial resistance and infection, on public health. Full article

Reproductive efficiency is a key element of profitability in dairy herds. However, the genetic evaluation of fertility traits is often challenged by the presence of high censorship rates due to various reasons. An easy approach to address this challenge is to remove the censored data from the dataset. However, removing data might bias the genetic evaluation. Therefore, addressing this issue is crucial, particularly for small populations and populations with limited size. This study uses a Moroccan Holstein dataset to compare two Gaussian linear models and a threshold linear model to handle censored records of days open (DO). Data contained 8646 records of days open across the first three parities of 6337 Holstein cows. The pedigree file comprised 11,555 animals and 14.51% of the dataset was censored. The genetic parameters and breeding values of DO were computed using three different methods: a linear model where all censored records were omitted (LM), a penalty method in which a constant equal to one estrus cycle in cattle was added to the maximum value of DO in each contemporary group to impute the censored records (PLM), and a bivariate threshold model with a penalty (PTM). The heritability estimates were equal to 0.021 ± 0.01 (PLM), 0.029 ± 0.01 (LM), and 0.033 ± 0.01 (PTM). The penalty method and the threshold linear model with a penalty showed better prediction accuracy calculated using the LR method (0.21, and 0.20, respectively). PLM and PTM had a high Spearman correlation (0.99) between the estimated breeding values of the validation dataset, which explains the high percentage of common animals in the top 20% of selected animals. The lack of changes in the ranking of animals between PLM and PTM suggests that both methods can be used to address censored data in this population. Full article

Metabolic diseases are significant diseases that affect the welfare, health, and production of small ruminant flocks raised for dairy and meat purposes. In breeding females, they mainly occur from six to eight weeks before and after parturition, respectively. Pregnancy toxemia and lactational ketosis are manifestations of hyperketonemia, primarily due to energetic deficit. Hypocalcemia and hypomagnesemia are related to the metabolic unavailability of calcium and magnesium, respectively. This review aimed to identify and discuss the current and most relevant aspects related to individual and herd health management of these interrelated metabolic diseases with impact on the sheep and goats’ farm sustainability. These diseases are primarily due to nutritional deficits, but homeostatic and homeorhetic disruptions are responsible for clinical signs and forms. Currently, their clinical diagnosis and monitoring are mainly assessed by biochemistry of body fluids and feed bromatological evaluation. Epidemiological studies and measuring risk factors also contribute to their prevention. Nevertheless, research on specific biomarkers and composite indices related to these diseases, in the context of herd health management and precision medicine, are new pathways driven to suitable and efficient animal production. Full article