Search Results (10,934)

Background: In this study, a cultivated mushroom (Buchwaldoboletus sp.) polysaccharide (BSP60) was prepared. Methods: The protective effect of BSP60 on ulcerative colitis (UC) was evaluated using a dextran sulphate sodium (DSS)-induced murine model of UC. Results: The results showed that BSP60 significantly alleviated colonic inflammation and oxidant stress in DSS-treated mice. BSP60 reduced the overproduction of TNF-α, IL-1β, and IL-6; lowered the accumulation of MDA and LPS in serum and colon; and increased the activities of antioxidant enzymes SOD and GSH-Px in colonic tissues. Histological observations revealed that BSP60 significantly alleviated DSS-induced colonic tissue damage in mice by reducing inflammatory cell infiltration and mucosal injury. Immunofluorescence staining revealed that BSP60 increased the expression of intestinal barrier-associated proteins ZO-1, occludin, and claudin-1 in DSS-induced UC mice, thereby alleviating inflammation. Analysis of 16S rRNA gene sequencing indicated that BSP60 maintained gut microbiota homeostasis in UC mice and inhibited the excessive growth of inflammation-associated microorganisms. BSP60 also enhanced the production of short-chain fatty acids in the mice feces. The protective effect of BSP60 on UC was dose dependent. Conclusions: BSP60 exerts anti-UC effects, providing a scientific basis for its application as a functional food ingredient to improve intestinal health. Full article

We recently identified the U1 small nuclear ribonucleoprotein (U1-snRNP) antibodies in patients with Guillain–Barré syndrome (GBS), which is associated with the breakdown of the blood–nerve barrier (BNB). The objective of this study was to clarify the clinical significance of U1-snRNP antibodies in patients with GBS and its variants. We measured U1-snRNP antibodies using an enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay from the serum samples of patients with GBS (n = 106), Miller Fisher syndrome (MFS) (n = 24), and MFS/GBS overlap syndrome (MFS/GBS, n = 8). We compared the clinical characteristics of U1-snRNP positive and U1-snRNP negative GBS patients (n = 106). The cerebrospinal fluid (CSF)/serum albumin quotient (QALB)/QALBLIM [calculated as(age/15) + 4)] was calculated. The prevalence of U1-snRNP antibody positivity was 39% (41/106) in GBS, 0% (0/24) in MFS, and 50% (4/8) in MFS/GBS. The rate of U1-snRNP antibody positivity in the GBS and MFS/GBS groups was significantly higher than that in the MFS group. Levels of CSF proteins and QALB/QALBLIM were higher in U1-snRNP antibody-positive GBS than in U1-snRNP antibody-negative GBS among all GBS patients, as well as GBS patients with a preceding Campylobacter jejuni infection or AIDP. In conclusion, the U1-snRNP antibody-positive GBS group had a more severe breakdown of the BNB in U1-snRNP antibody-positive GBS patients than in U1-snRNP-negative GBS patients. The presence of U1-snRNP antibodies may be a clinical biomarker for predicting the progression of MFS to MFS/GBS. Full article

Physiological function is closely linked to production performance in laying hens, especially during the late laying phase. Rehmanniae Radix powder (RRP), derived from the root of Rehmannia glutinosa Libosch., exhibits diverse biological activities. We investigated the effects of RRP on immune function in late-phase laying hens. Antioxidant capacity, serum biochemical parameters, splenic immune function, and intestinal health were evaluated. Egg production rate in the RRP group increased by 1.39 percentage points compared with the control group, while average egg weight was not significantly different between groups. Dietary RRP supplementation elevated superoxide dismutase activity and serum albumin level. Splenic expression of immune-related factors, including J-chain, interleukin-2, and caspase-3, was upregulated to varying degrees following RRP supplementation. Helper-to-cytotoxic T-cell ratio also increased, indicating enhanced immune regulation. Intestinal tight junction protein expression was significantly upregulated in the RRP group. RRP also altered relative abundance of intestinal microbes at phylum and genus levels, decreasing Actinobacteria abundance and increasing Bacteroidota abundance. Similarly, relative abundance of Bacteroides and noank_f_norank_o_Clostridia_UG-014 was elevated. Biological function of the microbial community predictions showed that glycolysis/gluconeogenesis, alanine/aspartate/glutamate, fatty acid biosynthesis, and metabolism were upregulated, while that of the quorum-sensing pathway declined. RRP supplementation improved antioxidant status, splenic immune function, and intestinal health, thereby enhancing physiological conditions in laying hens during the late laying phase. Full article

Background: Geographic peripherality in Israel is linked to poorer health outcomes and may disproportionately affect patients requiring chronic therapies such as hemodialysis (HD). Though malnutrition and inflammation are strong predictors of morbidity and mortality in HD patients, regional differences in nutritional status and dietary adherence are unclear. Objectives: To examine the association between peripherality and malnutrition risk, dietary intake, and adherence to nutrition guidelines among Jewish Israeli adults on HD. Methods: In this multi-center, cross-sectional study, 154 adult Jewish HD patients were recruited from the northern periphery (n = 66) and central regions of Israel (n = 88). Demographic, clinical, laboratory, and anthropometric data were obtained from medical records. Nutrient intake was assessed using the multi-pass 24 h dietary recall method. Malnutrition risk was classified using BMI and serum albumin; the C-reactive protein-to-albumin ratio (CAR) was also calculated. Adherence to International Society of Renal Nutrition and Metabolism (ISRNM) dietary guidelines was evaluated. Between-group comparisons and multivariable regression analyses were conducted. Results: Overall, participant characteristics were similar between groups; however, coronary heart disease prevalence and dialysis vintage were higher in the periphery. Participants from the periphery had lower serum albumin, blood urea nitrogen, hemoglobin, and blood pressure, but higher LDL cholesterol. Sodium intake was significantly higher and adherence to ISRNM sodium guidelines markedly lower in the periphery. In multivariable analysis, peripherality reduced the odds of meeting sodium recommendations by 92.8%. Adherence to energy and protein guidelines was low in both groups. Nearly half of participants had some level of elevated malnutrition risk using the categorized variable, and an overall difference in the categories of malnutrition risk was detected, driven by the increase in the moderate risk category in the periphery. The composite malnutrition risk variable (any increase in risk vs. no increase in risk) did not differ by peripherality. Peripherality was independently associated with higher percent ideal body weight (%IBW), but not with CAR. Conclusions: Peripherality among Jewish Israeli HD patients is associated with differences in nutrition biomarkers, cardiovascular burden, and dietary adherence, especially sodium intake. Interventions considering peripherality should be explored. Full article

Chronic sleep disturbance is postulated to enhance pain and inflammatory responses, although systemic inflammation has been primarily investigated to date. We sought to examine the effects of chronic intermittent sleep disturbance on pain-related behaviors and peripheral forelimb neural- and myofascial tissues in the context of aging. Uninjured young adult and mature female rats (3 mo. and 9–10 mo. of age) were exposed to either normal or disturbed sleep for 9 h/day on 4 d/week (using in-cage environmental stimulation), for 6 weeks. Compared to rats with normal sleep, sleep disturbed rats of both ages displayed: (1) mild declines in grip strength; (2) low-grade elevations in immune cells and collagen in forepaw neural- and myofascial tissues; and (3) higher protein expression of collagen type I, CTGF, and phosphorylated AKT in forearm flexor muscles. Young adult sleep disturbed also showed increased TGF-beta. Mature sleep disturbed rats also displayed low-grade yet greatest forepaw mechanical sensitivity, muscle and serum TNF-α, and peripheral immune cell numbers. These data suggest that chronic intermittent sleep disruption can enhance pain-related behaviors, inflammation, and fibrosis-related changes in peripheral neural- and myofascial tissues in uninjured rats. These effects occurred in both age groups, yet were more pronounced in the older rats. Full article

Background/Objectives: Ovarian cancer (OC) is a leading cause of cancer-related mortality in women, largely driven by late-stage diagnosis. Five-year survival is just 30% for advanced-stage (III-IV) disease but exceeds 90% for early-stage disease, underscoring the critical need for effective early detection tools. Current standard-of-care biomarkers show limited sensitivity for early-stage OC and lack specificity in symptomatic populations. Most biomarker studies in OC serum evaluate single molecular classes or compare OC to healthy controls, limiting understanding of coordinated biological alterations in circulating proteins, lipids, and metabolites in clinically relevant populations. Methods: We performed integrated multi-omics profiling of serum from a retrospective, case–control cohort of women presenting with vague abdominal symptoms (VAS), including early- and late-stage OC, borderline tumors, benign gynecologic conditions including adnexal masses, GI disorders, and healthy controls. Protein biomarkers were quantified by ELISA, lipidomic profiling was performed by untargeted LC-MS, and ganglioside and metabolomic profiling were performed by semi-targeted LC-MS with metabolite annotation performed against a curated reference library. Results: Consistent with known limitations for early-stage OC detection, CA125 and HE4 levels overlapped substantially with benign gynecologic conditions. Additional proteins also showed limited separation in their expression between early-stage OC and symptomatic controls. In contrast, OC showed unique lipid and metabolite profiles: phospholipids and glycerolipids were decreased, and sphingolipid composition was altered. Borderline and benign conditions exhibited lipid profiles that fall between healthy and OC groups, suggesting a continuum of metabolic changes rather than distinct states between OC and non-OC controls. Sphingolipid alterations included changes in ceramides and sphingomyelins, along with broader dysregulation of ganglioside profiles, including an elevated GD2;O2-to-GD1;O2 ratio. Metabolic profiling showed decreased amino acids and enriched cysteine metabolism in OC, consistent with altered redox balance, along with changes in fatty acids and acyl-carnitines, suggesting altered lipid metabolism and inflammatory mechanisms. Lower levels of glycolytic and TCA cycle intermediates in OC suggested altered mitochondrial metabolism and energetic reprogramming. Pairwise comparisons revealed a gradient of significance between groups, with differences between OC and healthy controls across lipid classes (LPC, PC, PE, TG, SM), gangliosides (GD1, GD2, GD2/GD1 ratio), and metabolites (amino acids, Cys/CySS, TCA cycle); borderlines occupied an intermediate space. Integration of these datasets revealed coordinated cross-omics relationships, identifying links between metabolite, lipid, and protein features. Together, these connections highlight structured, system-level alterations related to lipid remodeling, redox balance, immune signaling, and energy metabolism that no single modality would have revealed in isolation. Conclusions: This study presents an integrated analysis of the lipidome, gangliosome, metabolome, and protein biomarkers within a single clinically relevant symptomatic cohort enriched with multiple stages and subtypes of OC. This multi-omics framework demonstrates that molecular alterations in OC are biologically interconnected across molecular classes. While these findings are discovery-based and require independent validation prior to clinical application, they support the development of clinically deployable multi-omics biomarker strategies for early detection and potential pathways for therapeutic intervention. Full article

Alterations in microbiota, transcript and metabolites are critical to intestinal homeostasis and host health. This study used a combination of 16s rRNA, transcriptome sequencing and liquid chromatography–mass spectrometry to investigate intestinal microbiota, genes and metabolic profiles in the ileum of Hu sheep fed broccoli extract. Here, we randomly allocated 14 Hu sheep to two diets: a basal diet without any supplementation (NC) and a basal diet supplemented with 200 mg/kg broccoli tail (BT). After 60 days of treatment, blood and jejunal samples were collected for serum biochemical indicators and multi-omics analysis. In this study, the extract of broccoli tails had a significant effect on the serum biochemical indicators, including white blood cells, red blood cells, mean corpuscular volume, mean corpuscular hemoglobin concentration, mean platelet volume, triglycerides and total protein in Hu sheep (p < 0.05). Transcriptomic analysis showed that the 672 differentially expressed genes between the NC and BT groups were primarily enriched in linoleic acid metabolism, steroid hormone biosynthesis, and cholesterol metabolism. Metabolomics analysis using Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes enrichment showed that the 41 differentially abundant metabolites were mainly enriched in bile secretion, vitamin B6 metabolism, and the mTOR signaling pathway. 16S rRNA sequencing results indicated that the extract of broccoli tails increased the relative abundance of Peptostreptococcaceae and decreased the relative abundance of Lachnospiraceae, Lachnospirales, and Bacteroidaceae. Integrated transcriptome, metabolome, and microbiome analysis showed that the gut microbiota and host transcriptomic changes may participate in systemic metabolic regulation by modulating amino acid metabolism, lipid signal transduction, nucleotide metabolism, and vitamin B6-related metabolic pathways. These findings demonstrate that the extract of broccoli tails modulates intestinal gene expression, systemic metabolism, and gut microbial ecology in Hu sheep, providing new insights into the utilization of agricultural byproducts as a functional feed supplement for ruminants. Full article

Cardiac disease represents a major cause of morbidity and mortality in dogs. In human cardiology, iron deficiency is a highly prevalent and clinically relevant comorbidity, contributing to exercise intolerance, symptom burden, and impaired quality of life independently of anemia, while correction with intravenous iron improves function and reduces hospitalization. Iron metabolism in dogs remains poorly characterized and typically considered only in the context of anemia. This study investigated iron metabolism and its regulatory pathways in dogs with cardiac disease, assessing whether alterations in iron handling and availability consistent with an iron-restricted phenotype are present. Hematologic indices, serum iron, total and unsaturated iron-binding capacity (TIBC, UIBC), ferritin, hepcidin, ceruloplasmin, C-reactive protein, and albumin were evaluated in 61 dogs comprising healthy controls, and dogs either with compensated cardiac disease (CCD group) or presenting acute decompensated congestive heart failure (ADCHF group). Dogs with cardiac disease exhibited evidence of systemic inflammation, reduced hematocrit, increased red blood cell distribution width, and decreased circulating iron. Both cardiac groups showed reduced TIBC and UIBC, suggesting decreased transferrin availability and reduced iron transport capacity, whereas ferritin concentrations did not differ between groups. Hepcidin concentrations were lower in CCD and not increased in ADCHF patients, suggesting complex and non-uniform regulation of iron homeostasis rather than a classic hepcidin-driven inflammatory pattern. In dogs with ADCHF, iron-binding capacity was independently associated with indices of cardiac remodeling, and additional correlation between inflammatory markers and iron-related parameters supported an interaction between inflammation, iron handling, and disease severity. Full article

Assessment of the stability of inflammatory parameters in bovine blood samples is important because it enables evaluation of the impact of preanalytical factors on biomarker preservation, standardization of sample processing and storage conditions, as well as reliable and consistent interpretation of results in diagnostic and research studies. The aim of the work was to evaluate the stability of the most common inflammatory markers in the blood of cows in early lactation. The influence of the serum–clot contacts duration and the storage of the separated serum in 24 cows, at 25 °C and 4 °C, in intervals of 0–24 h, was examined. Concentrations of interleukin 1 and 6 (IL-1, IL-6), tumor necrosis factor α (TNF-α), interferon γ (IFN-γ), haptoglobin (Hp), serum amyloid A (SAA) and extracellular heat shock protein 70 (eHsp70) were determined by ELISA method, stability was assessed by ANOVA analysis and maximum permissible instability method. Stability was determined over a range of 2–15 h for IL-1, 8–24 h for IL-6, 9–13 h for TNF-α, 10–20 h for IFN-γ, 20–24 h for Hp, 15–24 h for SAA, and 9–12 h for eHsp70. The stability was strongly dependent on temperature and sample type, with storage at 4 °C providing the highest stability in most cases, while differences between serum and serum–clot samples were analyte-specific and less consistent compared to the effect of temperature. Full article

Objective: This study aimed to experimentally validate the hepatoprotective efficacy of Sheshang Jiedu Decoction (SSJDD) against Deinagkistrodon acutus (D. acutus) venom-induced acute liver injury (ALI) and systematically elucidate its multicomponent, multitarget mechanisms using an integrated multi−omics strategy. Methods: SSJDD constituents and serum-absorbed metabolites were profiled using UPLC-Q-Exactive HFX MS, and potential targets were predicted via network pharmacology. An in vivo model was established by intraperitoneally injecting Kunming mice with D. acutus venom, followed by a 7-day oral SSJDD intervention. The therapeutic efficacy was assessed by histopathological examination, serological analysis, and detection of oxidative stress markers in liver tissues. Label-free quantitative proteomics was performed on murine livers to map dynamic protein alterations and signaling cascades. Results: Integrated metabolomic and network analyses identified 15 primary active serum metabolites converging on core regulatory targets, including TP53, AKT1, and CASP3. In vivo, SSJDD dose-dependently ameliorated venom-induced lobular necrosis, suppressed elevated transaminases, and restored redox homeostasis without intrinsic hepatotoxicity. Quantitative proteomics revealed that venom triggered profound acute oxidative stress and coagulopathies, progressing to chronic metabolic disruption. SSJDD intervention substantially attenuated these proteomic alterations—reducing differentially expressed proteins by 84%—steering the hepatic microenvironment toward baseline homeostasis. Enrichment analyses demonstrated that these effects were primarily driven by modulating the coagulation-inflammation axis and the PI3K−Akt signaling pathway. Conclusions: SSJDD provides robust protection against D. acutus venom-induced ALI. Its active metabolites synergistically orchestrate hepatic repair and restore microenvironmental stability, primarily by targeting the PI3K−Akt pathway and regulating the coagulation-inflammation axis. Full article

Innate immunity predictors of HIV-1 risk and pathogenesis vary with reproductive hormones, pregnancy, and lactation, yet the underlying mechanisms remain unclear. We hypothesized that pregnancy-associated physiological adaptations alter systemic microRNA (miRNA) expression, thereby regulating immunity, pathogenesis and susceptibility to infection. We analyzed 174 serum samples from 88 participants in a longitudinal cohort from Uganda and Zimbabwe across pre-pregnancy (PP), pregnancy (P), and postpartum breastfeeding (BF). Cell-free peripheral blood miRNAs (n = 2083) were profiled using HTG EdgeSeq. Pregnancy-specific miRNAs were identified by intersecting differentially expressed (DE) miRNAs from P vs. PP and P vs. BF comparisons. miRNA targets and pathways were analyzed using miRWalk, Cytoscape/ClueGO, and cytoHubba. Pregnancy was associated with DE miRNAs (29 upregulated and 131 downregulated) targeting 2733 validated genes. Enriched pathways (FDR < 0.05) included adaptive immune response, Hippo Signaling, Cellular Senescence, HSV-1 infection, and two cancer-related pathways. Pregnancy-enriched targets within each pathway overlapped with the HIV–host interactome by 37–88%. Network analysis identified 47 hub genes interacting with 18 HIV-1 proteins, with Tat and gp120 being most connected viral and HLA-A being the most connected host protein. These findings indicate that pregnancy-driven systemic miRNAs target the HIV–host interactome and specifically identify pregnancy-enriched central hub genes involved in cell cycle control, viral immune evasion and replication to be further investigated for their predictive value in HIV acquisition and pathogenesis in longitudinal cohorts and experimental settings. Full article

Clostridioides difficile infection (CDI) is a leading healthcare-associated infection worldwide, causing significant morbidity, mortality, healthcare burden, and costs. Clinical manifestations range from mild, self-limiting diarrhea to severe, life-threatening complications such as toxic megacolon and septic shock. Early identification of patients at high risk of severe disease is essential to guide clinical decision-making and optimize therapy. This narrative review summarizes recent epidemiological data, current trends, and known risk factors as clinical context for severity prediction and then examines the utility and limitations of biomarkers that may predict CDI severity, including inflammatory, hematological, fecal, renal, and immune-response biomarkers. While some markers are already used in guideline-based assessment or routine clinical practice (e.g., C-reactive protein, white blood cell count, serum creatinine), they have limited specificity. Other markers emerging from CDI research, including procalcitonin, interleukins, and presepsin, may provide complementary prognostic information. The key challenge is not simply to identify additional biomarkers but to determine which biomarkers are clinically useful, at which stage of CDI progression, and in which patients they add value beyond conventional severity criteria. Validated predictive models integrating combinations of these biomarkers with clinical and microbiological data are needed to support early risk stratification and therapeutic decision-making at the time of diagnosis. Full article

Objectives: Human milk composition changes across lactation, but paired within-subject proteomic analyses comparing longitudinal trajectories in term and preterm milk remain limited. We aimed to characterize stage-associated proteomic changes within each cohort and determine whether longitudinal remodeling is shared or divergent between term and preterm lactation. Methods: In this single-center prospective study conducted at the Neonatal Intensive Care Unit, Jagiellonian University Medical College, Kraków, Poland (October 2020–November 2021), 40 lactating mothers (20 preterm, <32 weeks’ gestation, mean age 29.4 ± 6.1 years; 20 term, 37–42 weeks, mean age 30.2 ± 5.5 years) provided paired milk samples at ≤10 days postpartum and week 5. Milk serum proteomes were analyzed by quantitative data-independent acquisition mass spectrometry; differential abundance was assessed using two-sample t-tests with Storey false discovery rate correction (q < 0.05) and fold-change >1.5, followed by ClueGO pathway enrichment. Results: Stage-associated differential abundance was identified for 108 proteins in term milk (58 increased, 50 decreased) and 103 in preterm milk (64 increased, 39 decreased). Of these, 87 were shared between cohorts (80.6% of term, 84.5% of preterm set) with concordant directionality. Shared upregulated pathways included oxidative stress response and glycolysis (e.g., PRDX5, fold change 2.49, q = 0.044); shared downregulated pathways related to mucosal immunity (e.g., tenascin, fold change 9.61–11.41, q < 0.0001). Cohort-specific pathway signals were limited relative to shared remodeling. Conclusions: The human milk serum proteome undergoes substantial longitudinal remodeling in both term and preterm lactation, with most changes following a common temporal pattern; prematurity-related differences appear selective rather than global. These findings support lactation stage as a key determinant of milk proteomic composition and underscore the value of longitudinal, stage-aware study designs, although formal time-by-group interaction testing was not performed. Full article

Background: Extracranial arteriovenous malformations (eAVMs) are aggressive vascular anomalies consisting of abnormal blood vessels (BVs) and multiple other cell types, including macrophages. Although inflammation and the presence of immune cells are characteristics of eAVMs, the contribution of macrophage polarization to eAVM pathophysiology is unknown. Methods: In this study, pediatric eAVM tissues and adjacent control tissues were analyzed using immunohistochemistry (IHC) and immunofluorescence (IF) to assess M1 and M2 macrophage localization, loss of endothelial CD31 expression, and expression of the immune-regulatory protein PDL-1. In addition, serum samples from eAVM patients were analyzed using a human inflammation antibody array to profile cytokines and other circulating factors associated with M2 macrophage and immunosuppressive microenvironment. Results: eAVM tissues demonstrate accumulation of M2-polarized macrophages around abnormal CD31^−ve BVs, while M1 macrophages were primarily associated with normal appearing CD31^+ve vessels. eAVM tissues demonstrated increased expression of PD-L1 in regions enriched with M2 macrophages, which were absent in paired control tissues. Serum analysis revealed increased levels of circulating factors associated with M2 macrophages and immune suppression, including PDGF-BB, IL-4, and IL-16. Conclusions: These findings suggest that CD31^−ve vessels in eAVMs are associated with enrichment of M2 macrophages and a microenvironment suggestive of localized immune regulation. These observations are hypothesis-generating and warrant validation in larger patient cohorts and future mechanistic studies. Full article

Spirulina-derived protein hydrolysates (SPPHs) have attracted considerable attention as bioactive agents due to their potential metabolic and physiological benefits. This study evaluated the therapeutic efficacy of different enzyme-specific SPPHs—Pepsin (SPPH-P), Trypsin (SPPH-T), Chymotrypsin (SPPH-C), and a combined hydrolysate (SPPH-PTC)—in high-fat diet (HFD)-induced male Wister rats, compared with Spirulina platensis protein extract (SPPE, formulated using freeze–thaw cycles and ultrasonication followed by centrifugation) and atorvastatin as a Positive Control. The animals were randomly allocated into seven groups (n = 6 per group) and received their respective treatments orally for 4 weeks. Across treatment groups, significant improvements in obesity-related anthropometric indices were observed, including reductions in BMI, Lee Index, and abdominal circumference to thoracic circumference ratio (AC:TC), with the strongest effects noted in the atorvastatin and SPPH-PTC groups. Protein metabolism markers showed enhanced hepatic and serum protein status, reflected by increased albumin and total protein concentrations. Lipid profile analysis revealed marked decreases in total cholesterol, triglycerides, and LDL in both serum and liver homogenates, while HDL exhibited non-significant but favorable elevations. Liver function markers (bilirubin, ALT, AST) and renal parameters (uric acid, BUN) demonstrated notable improvements, particularly in enzyme-derived hydrolysate groups and Positive Control. Antioxidant assessments indicated substantial reductions in MDA levels and significant increases in SOD, CAT, and GSH activities in serum and liver tissues, confirming enhanced oxidative stress resistance. Among all treatments, SPPH-PTC consistently produced the most robust therapeutic outcomes. Overall, Spirulina protein hydrolysates, especially the combined PTC formulation, exert comprehensive beneficial effects on metabolic regulation, hepatic and renal function, and oxidative balance. These findings support their potential application as functional bioactive agents for managing obesity-associated metabolic disturbances. Full article