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14 pages, 13059 KiB  
Article
Regional Controls on Climate and Weather Variability on the Southwest Coast of Peru
by Mark R. Jury
Coasts 2024, 4(1), 49-62; https://doi.org/10.3390/coasts4010004 - 25 Jan 2024
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1949
Abstract
Southwestern Peru has an arid climate typical of subtropical west coasts bordering cold ocean currents. Mountain runoff is barely able to sustain urban needs and motivates this research. Using high-resolution satellite reanalysis products, the meso-scale climate and weather variability are explored via point-to-field [...] Read more.
Southwestern Peru has an arid climate typical of subtropical west coasts bordering cold ocean currents. Mountain runoff is barely able to sustain urban needs and motivates this research. Using high-resolution satellite reanalysis products, the meso-scale climate and weather variability are explored via point-to-field regression. A time series spanning 1970–2022 of Tacna area (18 S, 70.2 W, 570 m) rainfall, potential evaporation, wind, and weather parameters were evaluated for thermodynamic and kinematic features. Although sea breezes draw marine air inland, they simultaneously generate low-level divergence and subsidence aloft. Potential evaporation in early summer causes water deficits that are rarely offset by late summer runoff from the Andes Mountains. Winter (May–September) showers from passing cold fronts are more frequent during El Niño. Warming of the tropical east Pacific accelerates subtropical westerly winds that lift over the coastal plains. Quasi-stationary Rossby wave patterns amplify transient troughs at 70 W, but the winter showers rarely exceed 4 mm/day due to low-level stability from negative heat fluxes over cool seawater offshore. Two winter wet spells were studied using satellite and surface data (July 2002, July 2009). Light showers were prominent in elevations from 400 to 900 m. An early summer dry spell was considered (November 2020), wherein southeast winds, coastal upwelling, and low dewpoint temperatures coincided with La Niña conditions. A rain-gauge transect showed that summer convection stays east of the Andes escarpment and seldom benefits the coastal plains. Thus, water resources in Tacna are strained beyond the carrying capacity. Full article
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14 pages, 1674 KiB  
Article
Quantitative Microbial Risk Assessment for Private Wells in Flood-Impacted Areas
by Anna Gitter, Diane E. Boellstorff, Kristina D. Mena, Drew M. Gholson, Kelsey J. Pieper, Carlos A. Chavarria and Terry J. Gentry
Water 2023, 15(3), 469; https://doi.org/10.3390/w15030469 - 24 Jan 2023
Cited by 3 | Viewed by 3109
Abstract
Microbial contamination of private well systems continues to be a prominent drinking water concern, especially for areas impacted by floodwaters. Hurricane Harvey deposited nearly 60 inches of rain, resulting in extensive flooding throughout Houston, Texas, and neighboring counties. A sampling campaign to test [...] Read more.
Microbial contamination of private well systems continues to be a prominent drinking water concern, especially for areas impacted by floodwaters. Hurricane Harvey deposited nearly 60 inches of rain, resulting in extensive flooding throughout Houston, Texas, and neighboring counties. A sampling campaign to test private wells for fecal indicator bacteria was initiated in the weeks following flooding. Escherichia coli concentrations measured in wells were utilized in a quantitative microbial risk assessment to estimate the risk of infection for both drinking water and indirect ingestion exposure scenarios. Derived reference pathogen doses indicated that norovirus (1.60 × 10−4 to 8.32 × 10−5) and Cryptosporidium (2.37–7.80 × 10−6) posed the greatest health risk via drinking, with median health risk estimates exceeding the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency’s modified daily risk threshold of 1 × 10−6 for a gastrointestinal infection. Bathing (1.78 × 10−6), showering (4.32 × 10−7), and food/dish washing (1.79 × 10−6) were also identified to be exposure pathways of health concern. A post-flood microbial risk assessment of private wells in the Gulf Coast has not previously been conducted. Estimating these health risks can provide scientifically supported guidance regarding which well water practices are safest, especially when well water quality is unknown. Developing this guidance is critical as coastal communities experience increased vulnerability to flooding. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Water and One Health)
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30 pages, 7053 KiB  
Article
A Network of X-Band Meteorological Radars to Support the Motorway System (Campania Region Meteorological Radar Network Project)
by Vincenzo Capozzi, Vincenzo Mazzarella, Carmela De Vivo, Clizia Annella, Alberto Greco, Giannetta Fusco and Giorgio Budillon
Remote Sens. 2022, 14(9), 2221; https://doi.org/10.3390/rs14092221 - 6 May 2022
Cited by 6 | Viewed by 3894
Abstract
The transport sector and road infrastructures are very sensitive to the issues connected to the atmospheric conditions. The latter constitute a source of relevant risk, especially for roads running in mountainous areas, where a wide spectrum of meteorological phenomena, such as rain showers, [...] Read more.
The transport sector and road infrastructures are very sensitive to the issues connected to the atmospheric conditions. The latter constitute a source of relevant risk, especially for roads running in mountainous areas, where a wide spectrum of meteorological phenomena, such as rain showers, snow, hail, wind gusts and ice, threatens drivers’ safety. In such contexts, to face out critical situations it is essential to develop a monitoring system that is able to capillary surveil specific sectors or very small basins, providing real time information that may be crucial to preserve lives and assets. In this work, we present the results of the “Campania Region Meteorological Radar Network”, which is focused on the development of X-band radar-based meteorological products that can support highway traffic management and maintenance. The X-band measurements provided by two single-polarization systems, properly integrated with the observations supplied by disdrometers and conventional automatic weather stations, were involved in the following main tasks: (i) the development of a radar composite product; (ii) the devise of a probability of hail index; (iii) the real time discrimination of precipitation type (rain, mixed and snow); (iv) the development of a snowfall rate estimator. The performance of these products was assessed for two case studies, related to a relevant summer hailstorm (which occurred on 1 August 2020) and to a winter precipitation event (which occurred on 13 February 2021). In both cases, the X-band radar-based tools proved to be useful for the stakeholders involved in the management of highway traffic, providing a reliable characterization of precipitation events and of the fast-changing vertical structure of convective cells. Full article
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19 pages, 5393 KiB  
Article
Quick Predictions of Onset Times and Rain Amounts from Monsoon Showers over Urban Built Environments
by Siddharth Gumber and Satyajit Ghosh
Atmosphere 2022, 13(3), 370; https://doi.org/10.3390/atmos13030370 - 23 Feb 2022
Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2755
Abstract
Predicting the onset times of precipitation over densely populated cities for the purposes of timely evacuation is a challenge. This paper explored a flooding event over an urban built environment in a South Asian mega city, Chennai, where extant urban planning models rely [...] Read more.
Predicting the onset times of precipitation over densely populated cities for the purposes of timely evacuation is a challenge. This paper explored a flooding event over an urban built environment in a South Asian mega city, Chennai, where extant urban planning models rely on predicted rainwater amounts for early warning and impact assessment studies. However, the time duration of flooding events is related to the nature of the urban sprawl in the built environment. Any evacuation measure is invariably tied down to the time duration over which the precipitation event occurs, and therefore to the expected time of a precipitation event to begin. In this context, a crucial parameter useful to municipal authorities is the onset time of precipitation. This study used optimised analytical formulations to predict this time, and the derived analytical expressions for the case study yielded comparable times estimated from a computer-intensive full-scale large eddy model within an accuracy of 2%. It is suggested that municipal authorities (who are non-experts in fluid mechanics) use this early prediction for the purposes of quick alerts to a congested city’s most vulnerable citizens within urban sprawls. However, for the procedure to work at its best, it involves a two-stage procedure. The first step involves the use of a parcel model to obtain the expected cloud droplet spectral spreads based on the prevailing dynamical characterisations. The second step involves an optimisation procedure involving cloud spectral properties from the first step to quantify both the auto-conversion rates and the threshold. Thereafter, an onset time calculation based on cloud properties is estimated. These new results are cast in closed form for easy incorporation into meteorological applications over a variety of urban scales. Rain mass amounts were also predicted analytically and used to configure Aeronautical Reconnaissance Coverage Geographic Information System (ARCGIS) to compute low drainage flow rates over the vulnerable parts of Chennai city. It was found that heavy precipitation over the North Chennai region yielded discharge rates to the tune of ~250 m3s1 during a 24 h period, causing intense flooding in the low-lying areas around the Cooum River basin with a large population density, with estimates sufficiently corroborating observations. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Meteorology)
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10 pages, 2894 KiB  
Article
Model for Reconstruction of γ-Background during Liquid Atmospheric Precipitation
by Valentina Yakovleva, Aleksey Zelinskiy, Roman Parovik, Grigorii Yakovlev and Aleksey Kobzev
Mathematics 2021, 9(14), 1636; https://doi.org/10.3390/math9141636 - 11 Jul 2021
Cited by 5 | Viewed by 2078
Abstract
With regard to reconstructing the gamma background dose rate, existing models are either empirical with limited applicability or have many unknown input parameters, which complicates their application in practice. Due to this, there is a need to search for a new approach and [...] Read more.
With regard to reconstructing the gamma background dose rate, existing models are either empirical with limited applicability or have many unknown input parameters, which complicates their application in practice. Due to this, there is a need to search for a new approach and build a convenient, easily applicable and universal model. The paper proposes a mathematical model for reconstructing the temporal evolution of the ambient equivalent γ-radiation dose rate during rain episodes, depending on the density of radon flux from the soil surface, as well as the duration and intensity of rain. The efficiency of the model is confirmed by the high coefficient of determination (R2 = 0.81–0.99) between the measured and reconstructed ambient equivalent dose rate during periods of rain, the simulation of which was performed using Wolfram Mathematica. An algorithm was developed for restoring the dynamics of the ambient equivalent γ-radiation dose rate during rainfall. Based on the results obtained, assumptions were made where the washout of radionuclides originates. The influence of the radionuclides ratio on the increase in the total γ-radiation dose rate was investigated. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section E4: Mathematical Physics)
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15 pages, 3586 KiB  
Article
Assessing the Risk of Legionella Infection through Showering with Untreated Rain Cistern Water in a Tropical Environment
by Hunter Quon, Maura Allaire and Sunny C. Jiang
Water 2021, 13(7), 889; https://doi.org/10.3390/w13070889 - 24 Mar 2021
Cited by 8 | Viewed by 3510
Abstract
In September 2017, two category-5 hurricanes Irma and Maria swept through the Caribbean Sea in what is now known as the region’s most active hurricane season on record, leaving disastrous effects on infrastructure and people’s lives. In the U.S. Virgin Islands, rain cisterns [...] Read more.
In September 2017, two category-5 hurricanes Irma and Maria swept through the Caribbean Sea in what is now known as the region’s most active hurricane season on record, leaving disastrous effects on infrastructure and people’s lives. In the U.S. Virgin Islands, rain cisterns are commonly used for harvesting roof-top rainwater for household water needs. High prevalence of Legionella spp. was found in the cistern water after the hurricanes. This study carried out a quantitative microbial risk assessment to estimate the health risks associated with Legionella through inhalation of aerosols from showering using water from cisterns after the hurricanes. Legionella concentrations were modeled based on the Legionella detected in post-hurricane water samples and reported total viable heterotrophic bacterial counts in cistern water. The inhalation dose was modeled using a Monte Carlo simulation of shower water aerosol concentrations according to shower water temperature, shower duration, inhalation rates, and shower flow rates. The risk of infection was calculated based on a previously established dose–response model from Legionella infection of guinea pigs. The results indicated median daily risk of 2.5 × 10−6 to 2.5 × 10−4 depending on shower temperature, and median annual risk of 9.1 × 10−4 to 1.4 × 10−2. Results were discussed and compared with household survey results for a better understanding of local perceived risk versus objective risk surrounding local water supplies. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Water Quality and the Public Health)
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11 pages, 5693 KiB  
Article
Connected Variations of Meteorological and Electrical Quantities of Surface Atmosphere under the Influence of Heavy Rain
by Vladimir Kalchikhin, Alexey Kobzev, Petr Nagorskiy, Mariya Oglezneva, Konstantin Pustovalov, Sergei Smirnov and Dmitriy Filatov
Atmosphere 2020, 11(11), 1195; https://doi.org/10.3390/atmos11111195 - 4 Nov 2020
Cited by 9 | Viewed by 2952
Abstract
The electrical state of the surface atmosphere changes significantly under the influence of cloudiness and atmospheric phenomena, including atmospheric precipitation. These features can be used for possible diagnostics of precipitation and improvement of their characteristics based on variations of atmospheric-electrical quantities in the [...] Read more.
The electrical state of the surface atmosphere changes significantly under the influence of cloudiness and atmospheric phenomena, including atmospheric precipitation. These features can be used for possible diagnostics of precipitation and improvement of their characteristics based on variations of atmospheric-electrical quantities in the surface layer. Studies of variations of meteorological and atmospheric-electrical quantities in the surface layer were carried out during the heavy rainfall associated with the cumulonimbus (Cb) clouds passage. Meteorological and atmospheric-electrical observations in the Geophysical Observatory of the Institute of Monitoring of Climatic and Ecological Systems are presented in this paper. Precipitation data are used to identify periods of heavy rainfall ≥ 5 mm/h. Information of weather stations and satellites is used to separate the heavy rainfall events by synoptic conditions like thunderstorms and showers of frontal or internal air masses. We find that rains associated with the frontal Cb clouds produce more abrupt changes in negative electrical conductivity in comparison with the Cb clouds in internal air masses. The significant increase in negative electrical conductivity (more than two times vs. normal values) occurs typically during the passage of frontal Cb and heavy rain with droplet size greater than 4 mm. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Atmospheric and Ocean Optics: Atmospheric Physics II)
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22 pages, 4781 KiB  
Review
Soiling Losses: A Barrier for India’s Energy Security Dependency from Photovoltaic Power
by Aritra Ghosh
Challenges 2020, 11(1), 9; https://doi.org/10.3390/challe11010009 - 28 May 2020
Cited by 63 | Viewed by 11218
Abstract
Worldwide photovoltaic power generation is affected by deposited dust on photovoltaic (PV) systems, which creates soiling losses. In this work, factors that have a detrimental influence on dust deposition and an impact on PV systems performance were reviewed. The different ways that dust [...] Read more.
Worldwide photovoltaic power generation is affected by deposited dust on photovoltaic (PV) systems, which creates soiling losses. In this work, factors that have a detrimental influence on dust deposition and an impact on PV systems performance were reviewed. The different ways that dust deposition can be a barrier for India’s energy security plan involving PV were also discussed. Different available cleaning techniques were also introduced. The nature, size, and morphology of dust particles vary with geographical location. Any increase of the PV tilt angle, or high wind speed and heavy rain showers reduce dust deposition. Deposited dust reduces the incident transmitted light on the PV, which has an adverse impact on the reduction of short circuit current. However, the open-circuit voltage has a reduced effect due to dust deposition. The enhancement of temperature caused by dust-covered PVs is still a debatable area. A universal cleaning technique is required to eliminate the soiling losses from PV. India has a solar mission to generate 100 GW of PV power by 2022. However, India’s poor air quality can undermine efforts to achieve this target. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Energy Sustainability)
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26 pages, 13271 KiB  
Article
A Study of Vertical Structures and Microphysical Characteristics of Different Convective Cloud–Precipitation Types Using Ka-Band Millimeter Wave Radar Measurements
by Jiafeng Zheng, Peiwen Zhang, Liping Liu, Yanxia Liu and Yuzhang Che
Remote Sens. 2019, 11(15), 1810; https://doi.org/10.3390/rs11151810 - 1 Aug 2019
Cited by 6 | Viewed by 5879
Abstract
Millimeter wave cloud radar (MMCR) is one of the primary instruments employed to observe cloud–precipitation. With appropriate data processing, measurements of the Doppler spectra, spectral moments, and retrievals can be used to study the physical processes of cloud–precipitation. This study mainly analyzed the [...] Read more.
Millimeter wave cloud radar (MMCR) is one of the primary instruments employed to observe cloud–precipitation. With appropriate data processing, measurements of the Doppler spectra, spectral moments, and retrievals can be used to study the physical processes of cloud–precipitation. This study mainly analyzed the vertical structures and microphysical characteristics of different kinds of convective cloud–precipitation in South China during the pre-flood season using a vertical pointing Ka-band MMCR. Four kinds of convection, namely, multi-cell, isolated-cell, convective–stratiform mixed, and warm-cell convection, are discussed herein. The results show that the multi-cell and convective–stratiform mixed convections had similar vertical structures, and experienced nearly the same microphysical processes in terms of particle phase change, particle size distribution, hydrometeor growth, and breaking. A forward pattern was proposed to specifically characterize the vertical structure and provide radar spectra models reflecting the different microphysical and dynamic features and variations in different parts of the cloud body. Vertical air motion played key roles in the microphysical processes of the isolated- and warm-cell convections, and deeply affected the ground rainfall properties. Stronger, thicker, and slanted updrafts caused heavier showers with stronger rain rates and groups of larger raindrops. The microphysical parameters for the warm-cell cloud–precipitation were retrieved from the radar data and further compared with the ground-measured results from a disdrometer. The comparisons indicated that the radar retrievals were basically reliable; however, the radar signal weakening caused biases to some extent, especially for the particle number concentration. Note that the differences in sensitivity and detectable height of the two instruments also contributed to the compared deviation. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Radar Meteorology)
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22 pages, 15099 KiB  
Article
Impact of Drizzle-Sized Cloud Particles on Production of Precipitation in Hailstorms: A Sensitivity Study
by Nemanja Kovačević and Katarina Veljovic
Atmosphere 2018, 9(1), 13; https://doi.org/10.3390/atmos9010013 - 9 Jan 2018
Cited by 2 | Viewed by 4447
Abstract
This sensitivity study examined the impact of drizzle on hailstorm characteristics and precipitation on the ground. A cloud-resolving mesoscale model with a two-moment bulk microphysical scheme is modified by introducing mixing ratio and number concentration of drizzle. Therefore, the cloud model integrates the [...] Read more.
This sensitivity study examined the impact of drizzle on hailstorm characteristics and precipitation on the ground. A cloud-resolving mesoscale model with a two-moment bulk microphysical scheme is modified by introducing mixing ratio and number concentration of drizzle. Therefore, the cloud model integrates the mixing ratio and number concentration of the eight microphysical particles: cloud droplets, drizzle, raindrops, cloud ice, snowflakes, graupel, frozen raindrops and hailstones. We compared two microphysical schemes depending on whether drizzle particles are present or not. It can be noted that the presence of drizzle category slows the development of the rain in the hailstorm and its appearance on the ground. The increased values of radar reflectivity factor in simulations with drizzle are a result of significantly higher values of raindrop number concentration rather than their sizes and indicate the presence of hail as well. There are prominent decreases of the radar reflectivity factor in simulations with drizzle. The occurrence of heavy showers does not exist in results without drizzle. The absence of drizzle category leads to greater accumulations of rain and a wider area of downdrafts. The alternate case produces both weaker downdrafts and smaller area of downdraft cells due to a slower autoconversion of drizzle to rain and a smaller rain evaporation. A smaller amount of surface hail is expected in the non-drizzle case. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Meteorology)
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