Search Results (587)

Soil fumigation effectively mitigates replanting obstacles induced by intensive cultivation, yet its non-targeted biocidal effects can suppress beneficial microbial activity, potentially compromising agricultural sustainability. Microbial inoculation, as a strategy to supplement beneficial microorganisms, is often employed to restore soil microbial communities. However, in practice, commonly used exogenous microbial consortia exhibit poor adaptability in non-native environments, frequently resulting in limited efficacy. To address this limitation, we propose an ecological intervention based on the reintroduction of indigenous cultivable microorganisms: cultivable microbial communities were isolated from healthy adjacent soils and inoculated into fumigated soils affected by replanting obstacles. The experimental soil consisted of black soil under continuous cropping, collected from Northeast China. The three treatments were continuous cropping soil (control), fumigated continuous cropping soil and fumigated continuous cropping soil after inoculation of indigenous cultivable microorganisms. Using high-throughput sequencing and agronomic–chemical analyses, combined with cross-domain networks and procrustes analysis, we systematically assessed the ecological effects of this approach on microbial restoration and the alleviation of replanting obstacles. The results showed that indigenous cultivable microorganism inoculation significantly increased the richness of bacterial and fungal communities in fumigated soils within 21 days, extending microbial richness and diversity. Furthermore, inoculation accelerated the reconstruction of dominant microbial community structures, with the relative abundance of dominant species reaching up to 80%. Positive synergistic interactions between bacteria and fungi increased by approximately 10%, enhancing network stability. Key bacterial taxa, such as Paenibacillus and Mycobacterium, were significantly correlated with available potassium and phosphorus content, while Micromonospora, Massilia, and Flavisolibacter influenced plant fresh weight, total nitrogen, and potassium accumulation. Key fungal taxa, such as Cryptococcus and Phialemonium, were significantly associated with soil organic matter stability, maize photosynthetic efficiency, plant dry weight, and total phosphorus content. This study confirms the ecological adaptability and functionality of indigenous cultivable microorganisms in soil ecosystem restoration, offering a low-risk, highly effective localized intervention strategy for sustainable agriculture. Full article

The integration of appropriate tillage practices with straw returning can effectively mitigate soil degradation in Northeast China. However, limited research has explored the impacts of different tillage practices combined with varying straw incorporation depths on the structure and diversity of soil microbial communities. In 2016, a field experiment was initiated using a two-factor split-plot design, featuring six treatments: two tillage depths of 10 cm (D10) and 30 cm (D30) combined with three straw management practices—straw mixing incorporation (SM), straw deep burial (SB), and straw removal (SR). Soil samples collected in 2019 were analyzed for multiple soil properties and microbial indices. Results indicated that both straw returning and tillage depth significantly influenced soil organic carbon (SOC), soil total nitrogen (STN), total phosphorus (TP), and total potassium (TK), with the D30 treatment combined with straw returning optimizing soil nutrient contents most effectively. Under straw returning, D10 significantly increased urease activity in the 0–10 cm soil layer, whereas D30 enhanced this enzyme activity in the 10–30 cm soil layer, while β-glucosidase activity was less responsive to tillage depth. For the D10 treatment with straw returning, acid phosphatase activity was markedly higher than that in the straw removal treatment, whereas N-acetyl-β-D-glucosaminidase activity exhibited the opposite trend. Straw-returning methods had no significant effects on the bacterial and fungal Chao1 indices, while the Shannon index was positively correlated with key soil properties. Redundancy analysis (RDA) of microbial community composition at the phylum level and soil environmental factors revealed that soil nutrients in the 0–10 cm soil layer were positively correlated with Actinobacteriota, Ascomycota, and Basidiomycota, whereas the explanatory power of soil nutrients for microbial community variation decreased in the 10–30 cm soil layer. Our results highlight that tillage depth and straw returning can regulate soil microbial community composition and enhance soil nutrient cycling, thereby providing a theoretical basis for optimizing the combined application mode of tillage and straw-returning practices in Northeast China. Full article

Returning organic amendments to saline–alkali soils constitutes a key strategy for soil amelioration, as it enhances crop productivity by modulating the rhizosphere microenvironment. In this study, straw, biochar, and peat were selected as representative organic amendments, and a two-year field experiment—employing a rotational cropping system of Sesbania and Triticale—was conducted to investigate their differential regulatory effects on rhizosphere properties and root development. Results demonstrated that all three amendments induced coordinated shifts in the rhizosphere “extract–microbiota–enzymes–nutrients” nexus, concomitant with significant stimulation of root growth. The hypothesized pathways through which different organic amendments improve the rhizosphere environment vary mechanistically: straw application appears to enhance alkaline phosphatase activity and enrich phosphorus-solubilizing microorganisms; it is hypothesized that this promotes root growth by facilitating the mineralization of organic phosphorus. In contrast, peat amendment induces the most pronounced increases in esterase content and sucrase activity, and its growth-promoting effect is likely attributable to accelerated carbon and phosphorus cycling. Biochar, meanwhile, is associated with elevated catalase activity, improved potassium retention, and enhanced organic carbon sequestration; its beneficial function is postulated to stem from mitigation of oxidative stress. Collectively, this study provides initial evidence that distinct organic amendments modulate rhizosphere processes via divergent biochemical and microbial mechanisms—offering a theoretical foundation for their rational selection and application in saline–alkali soil remediation. Full article

This study investigated the combined effects of microbial-inoculated biochar and nitrogen (N) on rice growth and soil properties under saline conditions. A randomized complete block design with three replications was employed to evaluate three factors: (i) salinity level (non-saline, S0; saline, 0.4% NaCl, S1), (ii) biochar type (20 t/ha BC, BF, BB, and BFB), and (iii) nitrogen application rate (60 and 120 kg ha⁻¹). Soil physicochemical and biological properties, along with rice root development, were assessed. Salinity significantly reduced soil organic matter (OM) by 9%, nitrate nitrogen (NO₃⁻-N) by 16%, ammonium nitrogen (NH₄⁺-N) by 8.18%, and available phosphorus (AP) by 6.81%. Soil enzyme activities, including catalase (CAT), acid phosphatase (ACP), polyphenol oxidase (POX), and β-D-glucosidase (BG), decreased by 32.69%, 29%, 39.18%, and 19.44%, respectively, resulting in suppressed root growth compared with non-saline conditions. The combined treatment of microbial biochar (BFB) and N at 120 kg ha⁻¹ (BFB + N120) markedly improved saline soil quality and rice root performance by maintaining a favorable K⁺/Na⁺ balance in roots. Specifically, BFB+N120 increased OM by 145% and 120% compared with N120 and BC alone, respectively, and enhanced NO₃⁻-N, NH₄⁺-N, and soil enzyme activities (CAT, ACP, POX, and BG). These improvements were strongly associated with enhanced root development. Under saline conditions, BFB+N120 increased root dry mass by 429% and 1185.71%, and root length by 63% and 83%, compared with N120 and BC alone, respectively, in the cultivar Jing Liang You 534. Overall, the results demonstrate that microbial-modified biochar combined with nitrogen fertilizer mitigates salt-induced soil degradation by improving physicochemical and biological properties, thereby enhancing nutrient availability, ionic homeostasis, and root growth. This study provides mechanistic insights into the combined role of microbial biochar and nitrogen in the remediation of saline soils. Full article

Eutrophication is a pervasive issue in Mediterranean reservoirs, where external nutrient inputs and internal sediment releases interact to impair water quality and ecological stability. This study assessed the trophic condition of the artificial lake Cuga in Sardinia (Italy), mainly used for irrigation and providing potable water, by integrating watershed nutrient load estimates, inter-lake transfers, and internal phosphorus release. Field campaigns between July 2022 and May 2023 provided bi-monthly measurements of physical, chemical, and biological parameters, complemented by GIS-based land cover analysis and export coefficient modeling to quantify spatial nutrient sources. Additional phosphorus inputs from water transfers with a nearby reservoir were calculated, while internal sediment release was estimated using a calibrated mass balance model. Results revealed high nutrient concentrations, with mean total phosphorus of 128 mg P m⁻³, chlorophyll a averaging 9.9 mg m⁻³, and Secchi depth below 1 m, classifying the reservoir as eutrophic to hypertrophic under OECD and Carlson indices. Spatial loads were dominated by agricultural areas, while inter-lake transfers and internal sediment release contributed substantially to the overall phosphorus budget. The predictive Vollenweider model closely matched the observed conditions, confirming the robustness of the combined approach. Maintaining good ecological status in Mediterranean reservoirs is essential for safeguarding human well-being, as eutrophication degrades drinking-water quality, increases treatment costs, and can promote toxin-producing algal blooms with direct implications for public health. These findings highlight the need for integrated management strategies addressing both external and internal nutrient sources to mitigate eutrophication in Mediterranean reservoirs, which affects the ecosystem functioning and the related human needs and well-being. Full article

As a representative large shallow freshwater lake in China, Lake Taihu has suffered from persistent cyanobacterial blooms for a long time. Although intensive restoration actions have been carried out and caused visible improvements, the long-term evolution path and inner driving mechanisms of its ecosystem are still not fully made clear. Based on long-term monitoring data during 2011 to 2024, this study aims to characterize temporal dynamics of the aquatic environment, find out key drivers that shape community succession, and offer a scientific foundation for effective lake management. A series of data about hydrometeorological factors, physicochemical water quality indexes, and biological community data was analyzed by using the Mann–Kendall trend test, Pettitt change-point test, Redundancy Analysis, and correlation heatmaps. The results show that the Taihu ecosystem has experienced a notable regime shift in the past 14 years. First, nitrogenous nutrients reacted quickly to external emission reductions, showing a notable monotonic decline; in comparison, Total Phosphorus and Cyanobacterial Density followed a non-linear “U-shaped” path, with a notable shift happening in 2020, which marks the change from a “deterioration phase” to a “recovery phase.” Second, correlation analysis has confirmed that the lake is mainly phosphorus-limited, and a clear “decoupling” between nitrogen levels and algal outbreaks has taken place. Third, the “10-year Fishing Ban” (initiated in 2020), together with sustained phosphorus control, reduced the competitive exclusion of phytoplankton by cyanobacteria, promoting the recent rebound in biodiversity. This study points out that Lake Taihu has passed a tipping point of ecological restoration, shifting from a turbid “algae-dominated state” to a stable state with higher biodiversity. Future management strategies should put first the mitigation of internal phosphorus loading and adaptive management against extreme climatic events. Full article

Phosphorus is a ubiquitous contaminant in urban and agricultural landscapes. A retention basin located in the southern part of Barnegat Bay, New Jersey, was identified as receiving stormwater runoff with elevated phosphorus concentrations. The basin is surrounded by expanding urban development, contributing to the progressive degradation of water quality in the bay, which is already highly eutrophic. This study evaluated the effectiveness of a culvert retrofit with a green filter media composed of granulated-aluminum-based drinking water-treatment residuals (Al-WTR) and granular carbon (5:1 ratio, w/w) for the removal of phosphorus and suspended sediments from stormwater runoff. The performance of the filter media was assessed through water quality monitoring following runoff events over a 12-month period. The results indicated that the green filter media achieved up to 52% removal of total phosphorus from stormwater influent. However, treatment efficiency declined after approximately five months due to clogging of the geotextile bag housing the media. The replacement of the geotextile bag restored phosphorus removal performance (59%), highlighting the importance of routine maintenance. The findings demonstrate a cost-effective, environmentally sustainable, and innovative green engineering approach for mitigating phosphorus contamination in urban stormwater. Full article

Soil respiration (Rs) plays an important role in the carbon (C) dynamics of terrestrial ecosystems and is strongly regulated by nitrogen (N) inputs. While the impact of N fertilization on Rs has been widely documented in conventional farmland ecosystems, its patterns and influencing factors in perennial tea plantation systems are still poorly understood. In the study, we conducted a 15-year field experiment in a representative tea plantation to investigate the effects of different N rates (0, 112.5, 225, and 450 kg N ha⁻¹ yr⁻¹) on Rs. Compared to the control (N0), soil pH decreased significantly (p < 0.05) by 6.07%, 11.82%, and 16.12% under N112.5, N225, and N450, respectively. Concurrently, cation exchange capacity (CEC), ammonium (NH₄⁺-N), nitrate (NO₃⁻-N), and available phosphorus (AP) increased with increasing N rates, whereas available potassium (AK) decreased. Soil microbial biomass carbon (MBC) initially increased and then decreased with increasing N rates, while dissolved organic carbon (DOC) content increased consistently. The Rs rate exhibited a distinct seasonal pattern with a single peak in August. The annual mean Rs rates were 2.79, 3.15, 4.06, and 3.85 μmol·m⁻²·s⁻¹ for the N0, N112.5, N225, and N450 treatments, respectively. Soil temperature explained 55.41% to 61.08% of the variation in Rs rates across N treatments, and a composite model incorporating both soil temperature and moisture further improved the prediction of Rs dynamics. Cumulative soil CO₂ emissions (CCEs) over the study period ranged from 10,427 to 14,221 kg CO₂-C ha⁻¹ across treatments and were significantly negatively correlated with soil pH, and positively correlated with DOC, MBC, and NO₃⁻-N content. A non-linear relationship between N application rate and CCEs was observed, highlighting the complexity of optimizing N management for balancing productivity and climate mitigation in tea plantation systems. These findings provide a theoretical basis for developing rational N fertilization strategies and improving the predictive capacity of C cycle models in agroecosystems. Full article

Marine ranching, as a pivotal strategy for enhancing the ocean’s carbon sequestration potential, offers significant potential to mitigate nearshore fishery depletion and restore marine ecosystems amid the global carbon neutrality agenda. However, the mechanistic pathways linking sediment total organic carbon (TOC) to various environmental factors in tropical marine ranches remain insufficiently quantified. This study selected the Wuzhizhou Island Marine Ranch in Hainan Province—a representative tropical marine ranch—as the research site. Field investigations and sampling were conducted during the dry (March 2024) and wet (September 2024) seasons to quantify TOC in surface sediments and associated environmental variables. A two-step analytical framework, integrating Principal Component Analysis (PCA) and Generalized Additive Models (GAM), was employed to elucidate the environmental drivers governing the spatiotemporal dynamics of TOC. The results show that the surface sediment TOC at Wuzhizhou Island Marine Ranch exhibits a distinct spatial gradient—Core Reef > Atoll > Control > Estuarine, and a pronounced seasonal pattern with elevated concentrations in the dry season relative to the wet season. The spatiotemporal differentiation of TOC is mainly driven by a gradient (explaining 52.1% of variation) that encompasses processes related to carbon accumulation from terrestrial inputs and primary production, as well as organic matter degradation promoted by nutrients and higher water temperatures. Sediment total nitrogen (TN) emerges as the primary environmental driver of TOC distribution, contributing up to 46.9% of the variance at an extremely significant level (p < 0.001). Furthermore, total phosphorus (TP), pH, and water temperature (WT) have relatively minor influences on the distribution of sedimentary TOC. Our study offers a crucial reference for elucidating the key processes governing the carbon cycle in tropical marine ranches and provides essential theoretical support for optimizing ocean carbon sink strategies in the context of global climate change. Full article

Developed by Marais and Rabinowitz, the A²/O process is a pivotal biotechnology for biological nitrogen and phosphorus removal, developed by optimizing the five-stage Phoredox protocol. Renowned for its efficient configuration and straightforward operation, it has been extensively adopted in municipal and industrial wastewater treatment projects globally, including numerous facilities in China. However, the conventional A²/O process faces inherent operational challenges: the conflicting SRT requirements between autotrophic nitrifying bacteria (needing long SRT for stable nitrification) and PAOs, intense competition for carbon sources among PAOs and denitrifying bacteria, and the inhibitory effects of residual nitrate and DO on phosphorus release and denitrification. To address these issues, a range of optimization strategies has been developed, including SRT adjustment, carbon source distribution optimization, the integration of biofilm carriers, the addition of external carbon sources, and innovative modified configurations such as the Reversed A²/O, JHB, UCT, and MUCT. These approaches synergistically mitigate nitrate interference and enhance nutrient removal efficiency by decoupling microbial SRT demands, supplementing readily biodegradable carbon sources, and optimizing hydraulic flow paths. Future research should focus on deepening the understanding of the metabolic mechanisms underlying nitrogen and phosphorus removal, developing sustainable and efficient external carbon source systems, refining multi-mode reactor design for engineering scalability, optimizing combined processes for ultra-low C/N ratio wastewater treatment, and advancing low-temperature adaptation technologies. These efforts aim to further improve the process’s efficacy, stability, and sustainability, enabling it to meet increasingly stringent environmental discharge standards. Full article

Mitigating climate change necessitates a thorough understanding of soil organic carbon (SOC) decomposition and its response to warming. The overuse of synthetic fertilizers can alter SOC composition and affect carbon cycling, potentially changing the temperature sensitivity (Q₁₀) of SOC decomposition. This study evaluated the Q₁₀ of SOC decomposition after long-term (37-year) excessive fertilization in a loess soil. Four treatments were compared: control (no nutrient input, CK); recommended rates of synthetic nitrogen (N) and phosphorus (P) fertilizers (CF_r); excessive rates of N and P fertilizers (CF_h); and CF_h plus organic manure (MCF_h). The Q₁₀ of SOC decomposition was investigated via an incubation experiment at temperatures of 15 °C, 25 °C and 35 °C within 63 days. Compared with CF_r, long-term CF_h and MCF_h significantly increased SOC contents by 14% and 67%, and this increase was driven primarily by rises in mineral-associated organic carbon (MOC) of 28% and 62% and particulate organic carbon (POC) of 32% and 79%, respectively, under CF_h and MCF_h. While CF_h and MCF_h did not change the SOC composition, they increased the proportions of fine POC (fPOC) to SOC by 10% and 91%, and the ratio of light POC to SOC by 78% and 143%, respectively. Q₁₀ values ranged from 2.18 to 3.00 across all treatments, with a mean of 2.64. Both CF_h and MCF_h drastically enhanced the Q₁₀ values by 38% and 25% compared with CF_r at 15–25 °C. However, MCF_h significantly decreased the Q₁₀ value by 31% relative to CF_r at 25–35 °C. Partial least squares path modeling showed that soil physicochemical properties and labile carbon fractions differed significantly among treatments, with physical properties regulating labile carbon fractions. Fertilization significantly increased the Q₁₀ value at 15–25 °C owing to increased proportion of labile carbon fractions and decreased labile carbon content. Our results suggest that SOC gains from continuous addition of synthetic fertilizers are vulnerable to loss under warming. However, this loss could be alleviated by incorporation of organic manure. Thus, integration of organic manure into nutrient management practices could be an efficient way to counteract warming-induced SOC decomposition. Full article

Drought and soil nutrient deficiency are critical constraints on plant growth and ecological restoration in desert steppes; however, the interactive mechanisms between arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) and phosphorus fertilization remain poorly elucidated. To investigate the regulatory mechanisms governing root system architecture (RSA) remodeling and regrowth capability in Agropyron under drought stress, a controlled experiment was conducted using two genotypes: Inner Mongolia (NM) and Xinjiang (XJ). The experimental design comprised three water regimes (70%, 50%, and 30% field capacity [FC]), two P levels (P0, P1), and two inoculation treatments (A0, A1). The results indicated the following: (1) Although drought significantly inhibited Agropyron growth, the combined application of AMF and P (A1P1) induced a highly significant synergistic effect, augmenting total aboveground biomass by 66.08–160.58% compared to the control. This synergy exhibited distinct “environmental dependency,” being most pronounced under moderate drought conditions (50% FC). (2) Mechanistic analysis revealed that A1P1 optimized RSA by significantly increasing total root length, root surface area, and root volume (e.g., total root length increased by 281.4–375.1% under severe stress), thereby enhancing water and nutrient acquisition. (3) The A1P1 treatment significantly mitigated the decline in regrowth potential induced by successive clipping, sustaining a higher tiller number (increasing by up to 1.8-fold in the 3rd clipping). (4) The XJ genotype was characterized by higher basal biomass and root investment “high-yield phenotype”, whereas the NM genotype demonstrated greater sensitivity to AMF-P regulation “highly responsive phenotype”. In conclusion, the synergistic interaction between AMF and P mitigates drought stress by reshaping RSA and enhancing regrowth capability, providing a theoretical basis for the efficient management of arid grasslands. Full article

The construction of photovoltaic (PV) power stations for sand control in northwestern China has exacerbated the conflict between solar resource utilization and ecosystem fragility, creating urgent ecological challenges that demand immediate solutions. This study investigated Amorpha fruticosa growing under fixed adjustable PV panels at the CGN DaLate Photovoltaic Leading Base in the eastern hinterland of the Kubuqi Desert. Through long-term field observations, three shading time gradients were established: heavy shading (HS), light shading (LS), and no shading (CK, control). The results clearly demonstrated that: (1) Plants in the LS treatment exhibited significantly greater plant height, basal diameter, and crown width compared to those in HS and CK, indicating optimal growth status and morphological plasticity. They maintained the highest net photosynthetic rate (Pn) and water use efficiency (WUE), while their intercellular CO₂ concentration (Ci) was significantly lower than in CK, effectively mitigating photosynthetic inhibition caused by high light intensity. Total chlorophyll (Chl) content increased significantly with increasing shading intensity, whereas the Chl a/b ratio decreased. (2) The LS treatment yielded the highest nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P), and crude protein (CP) contents, along with a more balanced N:P ratio, suggesting a superior state of nutritional metabolism. Growth indicators showed significant positive correlations with WUE and Chl content, and significant negative correlations with transpiration rate (Tr) and Ci, confirming a synergistic “physiological adaptation-growth optimization” mechanism. Our results demonstrate that light shading represents the optimal condition for the growth and biomass accumulation of A. fruticosa, highlighting its potential as a key species for vegetation restoration in PV power stations within arid ecosystems. These findings not only elucidate the plant’s adaptation mechanisms but also provide a crucial physiological basis for selecting and managing understory vegetation, thereby supporting the optimization of integrative “PV-Ecology” systems for sustainable desert restoration. Full article

The growth performance of Penaeus monodon is often reduced when fishmeal is extensively replaced with terrestrial ingredients. This study evaluated the efficacy of a marine microbial biomass, NovaqPro™ (NQ), and inorganic mineral premixes in improving the performance of low fishmeal diets. Diets containing soybean meal, soy protein concentrate, and bloodmeal were formulated with fishmeal limited to 6%. Treatments included 10% NQ, an experimental inorganic mineral premix, a commercial mineral premix, and their combinations added to the low fishmeal control. A high fishmeal diet was also assessed as a benchmark of performance. NQ supplementation significantly improved shrimp growth, increasing weight gain by 78.7% compared with the low fishmeal control (2.77 vs. 1.55 g shrimp⁻¹) and numerically improved by 25.3% compared with the high fishmeal diet (2.21 g shrimp⁻¹). Similar responses were observed for FCR where NQ diets (1.47–1.68), as well as the high fishmeal diet (1.59), were superior to that of the control diet (2.02). Growth improvements were associated with increased feed intake and higher retention of protein and gross energy. In contrast, mineral premix supplementation did not improve growth, and weight gain was numerically reduced relative to the low fishmeal control. The NQ diet showed higher apparent digestibility of calcium, phosphorus, and magnesium compared with the high fishmeal diet. These results demonstrate that NQ is an effective mitigation strategy to reduce growth limitations associated with low fishmeal diets in P. monodon, without the need for additional inorganic mineral supplementation. Full article

Non-point source pollution has become one of the most widespread environmental degradation problems in recent years. This study aimed to investigate how hydrological processes regulate nitrogen and phosphorus losses under simulated rainfall conditions through in situ rainfall experiments in karst farmland. We conducted a field-scale plot experiment, recorded rainfall and runoff, and measured the nutrient concentration in the runoff of nine experimental plots on the slope toe, middle slope and upper slope. Simulated rainfall intensity was 90 mm/h for 60 min. The results showed nitrogen losses were dominated by subsurface flow in small-scale studies, which accounted for 55.19% (2.50 kg/ha), 71.35% (3.88 kg/ha), and 93.85% (1.39 kg/ha) of TN losses at the toe, middle, and upper slope positions, respectively. The middle slope exhibited the highest losses of N mainly due to its larger subsurface runoff volume. NH⁴⁺ dominated TN in surface flow, contributing up to 97.5% (0.0092 kg/ha) at the slope toe, whereas NO³⁻ was the dominant N form in subsurface flow, with little variation across the three slope positions, averaging 0.062 kg/ha. In contrast, phosphorus losses are primarily associated with surface flow, with TP concentrations in surface flow being 5–60 times higher than those in subsurface flow, with average surface TP losses of approximately 0.04 kg/ha. These results imply that nutrient management in karst farmland should adopt differentiated control strategies, with greater emphasis on reducing subsurface nitrogen leaching while limiting surface runoff and erosion to mitigate phosphorus losses. However, the conclusions are based solely on small-scale rainfall simulation experiments, and nutrient loss may also be influenced by factors such as karst terrain heterogeneity, prior soil moisture content, soil properties, and rainfall characteristics. Full article