Search Results (68)

This study examines the evolution and integration of Buddhist architecture in East Asia and emphasizes the preservation of indigenous building traditions by adapting pre-Buddhist architectural typologies, vernacular construction techniques, and localized worship practices. In addition, this study highlights the adaptive transformation of Indian Buddhist structures as they incorporate regional architectural forms, resulting in distinct monumental styles that had a profound symbolic significance. By introducing the concept of a cosmopolitan attitude, it underscores the dynamic coexistence and reciprocal influence of universalized and vernacular architectural traditions. The findings highlight the interplay between cultural universality and particularity, illustrating how architectural meaning and intention define the uniqueness of structures beyond their stylistic similarities. This study demonstrates that even when architectural forms appear similar, their function and underlying intent must be considered to fully comprehend their historical and cultural significance. Full article

The so-called “counterfeit monks and nuns” 僧尼偽濫 is regarded as an important reason for the “Huichang Persecution of Buddhism” 會昌滅佛, but it reflects the central views of the Tang Dynasty. When we delve into the local society of the Mid-to-Late Tang period, we find that they developed their own narrative logic. From the perspective of the imperial court, Li Deyu 李德裕 criticized Wang Zhixing 王智興 for establishing an ordination altar in Sizhou 泗州 for personal gain. However, in the biographical inscription of monk Mingyuan 明遠 in Sizhou, Wang Zhixing is portrayed as a key figure who collaborated with Mingyuan to ensure the survival of the Kaiyuan Monastery 開元寺, with the inauguration of the ordination altar 戒壇 serving as a necessary means to obtain financial resources. In fact, Mingyuan had previously undertaken a similar operation at the Lingju Monastery 靈居寺 in Liuhe County 六合縣, Yangzhou 揚州. The inscription of the Lingju Monastery Stele 大唐揚州六合縣靈居寺碑 reflects the cooperation between local monks and secular people at that time. During the process of rebuilding the monasteries, Mingyuan cleverly exploited the cult of the divine monk Sengqie 僧伽 within the Society of Jianghuai 江淮. The cult of Sengqie had become a national belief during the Mid-to-Late Tang period, and the existence of the Sengqie pagoda 僧伽塔 made the Kaiyuan Monastery in Sizhou uniquely significant. Later on, Youxuan 幽玄 also carried out similar initiatives by establishing an ordination altar for the restoration at the Baoli Monastery 寶曆寺 in Hongzhou 洪州. If we set aside the shadow of the overarching theme of the Huichang Persecution of Buddhism on the history of Buddhism during the Mid-to-Late Tang period, we may uncover a more vibrant picture of local Buddhism. Full article

The accelerating processes of globalization and modernization have imposed unprecedented anthropogenic pressures on the cultural diversity of historic districts, leading to the physical degradation of historical heritage and the fragmentation of cultural transmission chains. To address this challenge, this study establishes an innovative spatial-gene theoretical framework that seeks to balance heritage protection with urban development by integrating landscape characteristics and cultural connotations, thereby enhancing the conservation of cultural diversity in historic districts. Focusing on the historic Small Wild Goose Pagoda district as a case study, we developed a comprehensive methodology integrating field research, historical induction, spatial analysis, and place-making. Through this operational framework, we systematically identified four constitutive spatial genes: the mountain–water pattern, the urban-axis, the li-fang, and the architectural courtyard. These genetic elements inform a dual-regeneration strategy that promotes synergy and dialogue between old and new: (1) place-making guided by historical morphological grammar rules and (2) activity organization that reconfigures the value system of “openness and inclusiveness”. This research not only advances spatial-gene theory but also provides a replicable model for regenerating historic districts oriented toward cultural diversity, effectively combining historical authenticity with contemporary functionality to promote sustainable urban development. Full article

This paper presents an innovative procedure for the stability assessment of masonry domes, aiming at simplifying the modelling and the computational stages of structural analysis. It exploits a macroscopic approach to discretise masonry, specifically using elastic bodies linked by nonlinear interfaces. The latter are made by axial and, when needed, tangential trusses—in turn characterised by an elastic perfectly plastic/brittle behaviour—which constitute the joints connecting homogenised elastic macroblocks. The objective is—by employing low-cost commercial Finite Element software—to predict the behaviour of a masonry curved structure up to failure, maintaining the computational complexity low and the approach accessible to a common user. The process enables not only the quantification of damage at failure but also the tracking of its evolution within the structure, by examining axial forces found in the trusses at each load step. The method allows the modelling of the response of any kind of masonry structure under imposed loads or displacements. Its efficacy is proven on a paradigmatic dome (Global Vipassana Pagoda, Mumbai, India) by comparing the results with limit analysis precedent studies. Finally, the major reliability of a 3D approach is demonstrated. Full article

The 3D resistivity imaging surveying is adept at identifying structural details at various subsurface depths, and it can acquire valuable underground information even in complex geological environments. This technique has been widely applied in fields such as geological exploration, hydrogeology, and environmental monitoring. Currently, the 3D electrical resistivity surveys in the field are primarily deployed using regular grid and equidistant electrode layouts. However, when the survey area is influenced by obstacles or when the target being investigated is particularly complex, this may hinder the deployment of the electrode array in accordance with a rectangular grid. In some instances, it may even be impossible to position the electrodes directly above the target of investigation. The only viable option is thus to place electrodes around obstacles or special targets. In view of this, this paper studied unconventional electrode arrays and inversion imaging techniques of 3D electrical resistivity surveying in confined areas. It presents the design of three electrode arrays: “□”-shaped, “U”-shaped, and “L”-shaped. Furthermore, the study explores 3D resistivity finite element numerical simulation and inversion imaging techniques based on continuous electrical media. Finally, model experiments were conducted to verify the feasibility of these three special electrode arrays. We have applied the “□”-shaped electrode array to investigate the foundation structure of an ancient pagoda in Zhejiang Province, achieving promising results. This study provides valuable reference for the research and application of special observation in 3D electrical resistivity exploration. Full article

Glazed tiles are a quintessential ceramic creation applied in architectural systems, with Chinese pagodas serving as emblematic symbols that embody the design philosophy and diverse cultural beliefs of construction. Despite enduring wars, extreme weather, and the passage of millennia, glazed pagodas have withstood the test of time. The erosion of glazed components by wind and rain has not diminished their solemnity but has added a profound historical depth, making these surviving ancient-glazed components even more precious. This study examines the structural and stylistic features of Chinese glazed pagodas, exploring the extent of glazed component coverage. Using quantitative methods, the study zones, calculates, and classifies Chinese glazed pagodas, further elucidating their evolution and development through various historical periods. Additionally, based on a comprehensive survey of Chinese glazed pagodas, the study integrates theories from archaeology, art history, and architecture to deeply analyze their distribution areas, chronological spans, and cultural contexts, offering new perspectives for the systematic classification of Chinese glazed pagodas. Full article

Buddhist culture in Liaoning has a long and rich history. The continuous spread of Buddhism has promoted the development of Buddhist architecture, leaving us a rich architectural art heritage. Furthermore, it has also profoundly influenced China’s architectural characteristics, social culture, and economic development. This paper takes Buddhist temples and pagodas in Liaoning as the research objects and uses methods such as the geographic concentration index, nearest neighbor index, kernel density estimation, and standard deviation ellipse to analyze their spatio-temporal distribution characteristics and influencing factors across different periods. 1. Temporal distribution. During the Liao Dynasty (907–1125 AD) and the Qing Dynasty (1636–1912 AD), the construction of Buddhist temples and pagodas was the highest, with a linear increase in the Qing Dynasty. 2. The overall spatial distribution of Buddhist temples and pagodas in Liaoning is uneven, showing an agglomeration distribution state. The distribution status of different periods was different, and the Ming (1368–1644 AD) and Qing dynasties (1636–1912 AD) showed obvious aggregation distribution. The overall state is “more in the west and less in the east” and “more in the north and less in the south”. 3. In different periods, the spatial distribution direction of Buddhist temples and pagodas in Liaoning was relatively obvious and was southwest–northeast, and the center of gravity gradually shifted to the northwest. 4. The kernel density of different periods presents the density distribution and area of each period. The overall distribution is dense to scattered and then to highly dense. 5. The spatio-temporal distribution characteristics of Buddhist temples and pagodas in Liaoning are mainly composed of deep-seated political factors, rapid economic development and stable social environment, diverse culture, natural geography, cultural relics protection, and the artistic value of Buddhist architecture in the Liaoning region. Full article

The Sakyamuni Pagoda of Fogong Temple, also known as the Yingxian Wooden Pagoda or the Wooden Pagoda of Ying County, is China’s oldest and tallest wooden pagoda. This pagoda was constructed in 1056 and has faced many challenges, including earthquakes, wars, and mistreatment. However, it is currently in danger of potential collapse due to severe structural challenges. Preserving this historic monument requires interdisciplinary collaboration across architectural history, materials science, and engineering. This paper proposes the development of a parametric model to build the pagoda that can be used for future preservation efforts. While not precisely reflecting the pagoda’s current condition, with the changes in inputs, the geometries of the structural members can be updated in real time, which offers adaptability crucial for preservation efforts. With the understanding of the original construction techniques, including its leaning column systems, the model not only helps preservation but also reveals the creativity of the architects or the craftsmen at the time. The 3D model, which includes more than 32,000 pieces along with the parametric files that can generate the column grid and dougongs, has been published along with this paper, and those files are available in the Data Availability Statement. In summary, the full digital model presented alongside this paper, unavailable elsewhere to the general public, serves as a practical preservation tool that can also be used for raising awareness for this cultural heritage site. Full article

The Xizi Pagoda (惜字塔) is a form of traditional religious building used for burning “Paper with Characters (字纸)”, worshiping the gods, praying for blessings, revitalzing culture, and it is also an important material embodiment in the process of the development and evolution of religion in China, carrying China’s unique “Scholarly Culture (书香文化)”. This paper is the first study of the philosophy of religion of Xizi Pagodas (a vernacular stone religious architectural landscape). The research of the representative Xizi Pagodas in different parts of Hunan province were carried out to analyze the origin of Xizi Pagodas, cultural rituals, modeling paradigms, decorative art, and to explore the traditional Chinese religious and philosophical thoughts embedded in Xizi Pagodas through relevant literatures. The results show that Xizi Pagodas contain the religious concepts of “Confucianism, Buddhism and Taoism (儒释道)”: the emergence of Xizi Pagodas is connected to the development of Confucianism; Xizi Pagodas incorporate Buddhistic thoughts and inherit architectural features of Buddhist Pagodas; and the “Xizi (惜字)” ritual and images of deities on Xizi Pagodas are associated with Taoism. At present, the number of Xizi Pagodas is decreasing, and the remaining ones are in a serious state of dilapidation and disrepair, and the “Xizi” Culture is gradually being forgotten and fading away. This paper enriches the relevant research on the Xizi Pagodas and the “Xizi” Culture. Full article

With the processes of urbanization and population migration in China, local traditional folk beliefs are facing a crisis of inheritance, including the loss of believers and the decline of religious buildings. However, in the southeastern coastal areas of China, with the development of society and the advancement of science and technology, folk beliefs have shown a trend of modernization, gained widespread attention from young people, and shown a good trend of inheritance. This study focuses on the modernization of folk beliefs in the southeastern coastal areas of China, exploring how folk beliefs are adapted to contemporary life and the key role of information technology in the protection of religious buildings. The study found that the modernization of folk beliefs in China’s southeastern coastal areas is mainly reflected in the portrayal of gods in cartoonish images, the popularity of music, and the modernization of communication methods. By analyzing the modernization process of folk beliefs in the southeastern coastal areas of China, this study reveals the adaptation and development of folk beliefs in modern society. Based on the reality of contemporary Chinese society, this study also explores the future modernization trend of folk beliefs and discusses the possibilities and potential risks of the application of digital technology in folk belief inheritance. Full article

In Ying Xian Fogong Si Shijia Ta 應縣佛宮寺釋迦塔 (Sakyamuni Pagoda of Fogong Temple in Ying County), Shanxi, there are statues set on each floor, and 26 exist in total, with six murals painted on the first floor. The pagoda was designed as a vertically rising Buddhist temple, and the interior space of each floor was customized for the statues. Based on previous research and through surveying and mapping of the architecture and statuary (including the murals on the first floor) combined with geometric design analysis, this paper proposes the following: First, there exists a clear geometric proportion among the interior space and statues on each floor of the pagoda. Second, clear proportional relationships also exist among the statues on each floor, and each of the 26 statues has ‘classical’ proportion rules. Third, the height of the giant Buddha statue on the first floor is the module for not only the height of the statues on each floor but also the construction of the whole pagoda such that the height of the statue on the first floor is 1/6 of the total height of the pagoda (excluding the base). And the ratio of the pagoda’s total height to the first floor’s diameter, the ratio of the total height to the top-story height under the column capital, and all the other geometric proportions are closely related to the architectural modeling. And finally, in the construction of the pagoda, statues, and murals, the scale is deduced to be 1 chi 尺 (Chinese foot) = 29.5 cm. These values give clear scale logics not only to the construction but also to the details of the statues. Accordingly, the most frequently used proportions in the architectural space, statues, and murals of the Pagoda of Fogong Temple are $\sqrt{2}$, 3:2, 5:3 (or 8:5), and 9:5, which are imbued with cultural messages, like Zhou Bi Suan Jing 周髀算經 (The Mathematical classic of the Zhou shadow-gauging instrument), Ying Zao Fa Shi 營造法式 (Treatise on Architectural Methods or State Building Standards), the ancient Chinese world view—tian yuan di fang 天圜地方 (the dome-shaped heaven and the flat, square earth) reflected from “ yuan fang tu 圓方圖 (rounded-square map)” and “fang yuan tu 方圓圖 (squared-circle map)”, ancient Chinese ideas that ”san tian liang di er yi shu 參天兩地而倚數 (‘three’ is the number of the heaven and ‘two’ is the number of the earth, and all numbers are based on them)” and “jiu wu zhi zun 九五之尊 (nine and five are the numbers of the honorable central position)”, and most probably related to the “mandala” of Esoteric Buddhism and to the Western “Golden Ratio”, which all need further research in depth. Full article

Studying the correlation between religions and cities is conducive to understanding the role of worship in shaping human settlements. Mrauk-U, the capital of the Arakan Kingdom in Southeast Asia during the 15th–18th centuries, was once a regional Buddhist center, and the pagodas distributed throughout this city demonstrate the visible influence of Buddhism. The purpose of this study is to gain a more comprehensive understanding of the significance of Buddhism in Mrauk-U by exploring the correlation between the pagodas and the urban space. Based on first-hand spatial data, historical maps, and archaeological studies, the spatial distribution characteristics of the pagodas in Mrauk-U were analyzed using the methods of spatial and literature analysis. Their relationships with the urban structure, mountains, water systems, and open space were visualized and examined using the GIS platform; then, the hidden historical mechanisms were investigated. This study concludes that Mrauk-U’s pagodas, as urban images, have shaped its sacred urban landscape system, revealing that Buddhism played an important role in shaping Mrauk-U’s physical space and social and cultural characteristics. Full article

Rural residents in China are still at risk of malnutrition, and increasing dietary diversity is crucial to improving their health. This study empirically analyzed the impact of non-farm employment on the dietary diversity of rural left-behind family members based on the China Land Economy Survey (CLES) 2020–2021 panel data at the farm and village levels. Dietary diversity was measured using the dietary diversity score (DDS) and the Chinese Food Guide Pagoda Score (CFGPS). The empirical results show that non-farm employment significantly enhances the dietary diversity of rural left-behind household members, including animal food diversity and plant food diversity. This result verifies the altruism phenomenon of non-farm employment in family diet. Mechanism analysis shows that non-farm employment enhances the dietary diversity of rural left-behind family members by increasing the level of family income, Internet accessibility, and family education. Heterogeneity analysis shows that non-farm employment does not enhance the dietary diversity of rural empty nesters and even has a negative impact. This reminds us that the nutritional health of rural empty nesters needs attention in the context of rapid urbanization and aging. Full article

Ancient masonry pagodas hold significant scientific, historical, and cultural importance. However, due to the complexity of masonry materials, structures, and boundary conditions, establishing finite element static and dynamic models for ancient masonry pagodas is highly challenging. This study aimed to explore the dynamic characteristics and finite element numerical simulation methods of ancient masonry pagodas in Yongzhou, Hunan province. It focused on the Huilong Pagoda in Yongzhou, where in situ test experiments under natural excitation are conducted. The SSI and NExT-ERA methods were employed to determine the ancient pagoda’s natural frequencies, vibration patterns, and damping ratios, and to validate the NExT-ERA method. The macroscopic numerical model of the Huilong Pagoda was calibrated using measured results. Subsequently, the NExT-ERA identification results were compared and analyzed with the numerical simulation results of the dynamic characteristics. The results indicate that the first three orders of natural frequencies for the ancient pagoda in the east–west direction are 1.937 Hz, 6.802 Hz, and 21.361 Hz, respectively. Similarly, the first three orders of natural frequencies in the north–south direction are 1.935 Hz, 7.439 Hz, and 21.398 Hz. The results obtained from both methods revealed that the overall structural damping ratio ranges from 0.21% to 2.89%. The numerical model was analyzed using ANSYS, and the first three orders of natural frequencies obtained were highly consistent with the measured values, exhibiting a maximum relative error of 8.54%. The numerical simulation method developed in this study can effectively simulate masonry pagodas. Full article

This study conducts a comparative analysis of Buddhist sacred structures throughout Asia, focusing on the historical development, regional disparities, and the cultural sinification process of stūpas, caityas, and pagodas. Specifically, it delves into the origins, definitions, and terminologies of early Buddhist monuments, such as stūpas/mahācetiyas and caityas/cetiyas, emphasizing their Indian origins. The research further explores the adaptation and reinterpretation of these original Indian concepts as they spread to East Asia, morphing into new forms, such as pagodas and Buddha halls. It examines the subtle shifts in terminology and the altered meanings and functions of these monuments, from their Indian origins to their sinified representations in East Asia. The transformation of Indian Buddhist monuments through local culture and technology into East Asian architectural forms is investigated, offering a detailed perspective on the dynamic transformation of sacred spaces in Buddhism. This illustrates the religion’s adaptability and integration with the local cultures of ancient East Asia. By analyzing the terminologies and symbolic meanings associated with the architectural transition from stūpa to pagoda, the study argues that sinicized ritual spaces in East Asia have adopted architectural types from pre-Buddhist traditions to represent Indian spaces, thereby highlighting the nuanced changes and the continuous adaptation of sacred Buddhist architecture. Full article