Search Results (715)

Persistent organic pollutants such as polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins and dibenzofurans (PCDD/Fs) and polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) remain a public health concern due to their persistence, bioaccumulation, and potential health effects. Human breast milk is an important biomonitoring matrix for assessing maternal and infant exposure to lipophilic contaminants. This pilot study aimed to determine concentrations of PCDD/Fs, dioxin-like PCBs (dl-PCBs), and non-dioxin-like PCBs (ndl-PCBs) in breast milk samples collected from five lactating women residing in the Greater Poland Province and to explore potential determinants of exposure. Following participant recruitment, sample collection, and questionnaire-based assessment performed by the authors, breast milk samples were analyzed at the accredited Laboratory of Trace Analysis (Cracow University of Technology, Poland) using isotope dilution gas chromatography coupled with tandem mass spectrometry. Toxic equivalency values (TEQ) were calculated using World Health Organization 2005 toxic equivalency factors (WHO-TEFs). WHO-PCDD/F-TEQ ranged from 0.096 to 0.22 pg/g fresh weight. Median lipid-normalized WHO-PCDD/F-TEQ and total WHO-PCDD/F-PCB-TEQ concentrations were 3.5 and 4.7 pg/g lipid, respectively, remaining below the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) reference level of 5.9 pg/g lipid; only one sample exceeded this threshold (6.2 pg/g lipid). Lipid-normalized WHO-PCB-TEQ correlated positively with maternal age (ρ = 0.949, p = 0.0389). The observed values were within the lower range reported in recent European studies. The congener patterns suggest a combination of chronic exposure to combustion by-products and long-term bioaccumulation of historical industrial pollutants. Although limited by the small sample size, this exploratory study provides preliminary regional biomonitoring data supporting future environmental exposure research. Full article

Nipah virus (NiV) is an animal-borne RNA virus of the genus Henipavirus that poses a significant global health threat. This threat is driven by the virus’s high mortality rate, its capacity to cause epidemics, and the lack of licensed therapeutic interventions or vaccines. Since its initial identification during the 1998–1999 outbreak in Malaysia and Singapore, recurrent episodes have occurred primarily in Bangladesh and India, with mortality rates frequently exceeding 70%. Fruit bats of the genus Pteropus serve as the biological host for the virus. Transmission to humans occurs via contact with infected wildlife, consumption of contaminated products, such as freshly harvested date palm sap, or direct person-to-person exposure. Other modes of transmission, such as transplacentally or via breast milk, are still under investigation. The clinical presentation of NiV infection varies widely, from mild flu-like symptoms to life-threatening respiratory disease and acute encephalitis. It frequently attacks the nervous system, which can lead to coma, permanent neurological damage, or relapsing encephalitis. The virus enters host cells via ephrin-B2/B3 receptors, enabling systemic dissemination and infiltration of the central nervous system. Diagnosis relies primarily on RT-PCR and serological assays, and virus isolation requires high-containment laboratories. Management remains largely supportive, as no approved antiviral therapy exists. Experimental agents, such as remdesivir, favipiravir, and monoclonal antibodies such as m102.4, have shown promise in preclinical studies. Multiple vaccine platforms—including subunit, viral vector, mRNA, and nanoparticle-based approaches—are under development, though none is yet licensed for human use. Strengthened surveillance, infection control measures, and continued research are essential to mitigate the threat posed by this emerging pathogen. This review summarizes current knowledge on NiV, including its virology, epidemiology, pathogenesis, transmission, and recent progress in therapeutic and vaccine development. Full article

Human milk (HM) is recognized as the optimal source of nutrition for infants, providing essential nutrients, bioactive compounds, and immunological protection crucial for proper growth and development. However, due to increasing environmental pollution, HM may also serve as a vector for exposure to toxic substances, including heavy metals. These contaminants originate from both current environmental exposure and long-term accumulation in maternal tissues, which may be mobilized during pregnancy and lactation. Objectives: The aim of this review was to comprehensively analyze the occurrence, sources, and determinants of heavy and toxic metals in human milk, with particular emphasis on maternal–infant transfer pathways and geographical variability of exposure. Methods: A structured narrative review with systematic literature search elements was conducted using PubMed, Scopus, and Web of Science databases. The search covered studies published between 2010 and 2025 and was limited to articles written in English. The search strategy included terms related to human milk and heavy metal exposure (Pb, Cd, Hg, As, Cr, Al). Predefined inclusion and exclusion criteria were applied, and a qualitative synthesis of environmental, dietary, physiological, and lifestyle-related determinants, as well as geographical variability, was performed. Results: The available evidence indicates that heavy metals are commonly detected in human milk worldwide, with concentrations strongly influenced by environmental pollution, maternal diet, and lifestyle factors. Under typical exposure conditions, reported concentration ranges are approximately 2–5 µg/L for lead (Pb), 1.4–1.7 µg/L for mercury (Hg), and below 1 µg/L for cadmium (Cd). However, substantially higher levels have been reported in highly contaminated regions, with extreme values exceeding 1000 µg/L for Pb and 100 µg/L for Hg in isolated cases. Key exposure pathways include contaminated food, drinking water, air pollution, and endogenous mobilization of metals stored in maternal tissues (particularly bone and adipose tissue). Significant geographical variability was observed, with higher concentrations reported in industrialized and mining regions. Infants represent a highly vulnerable population due to immature detoxification systems, increased gastrointestinal absorption, and ongoing neurodevelopment, which may amplify toxic effects even at low exposure levels. Conclusions: Although human milk remains the gold standard for infant nutrition, the presence of heavy metals highlights the need for continuous environmental monitoring and preventive strategies aimed at reducing maternal exposure. The benefits of breastfeeding clearly outweigh the potential risks; however, minimizing environmental contamination remains a critical public health priority. Future research should focus on standardizing analytical methods, improving biomonitoring strategies, and better characterizing long-term health outcomes associated with early-life exposure to toxic metals. Full article

Bovine milk is a primary dietary source of nutrients and bioactive compounds. However, its safety is increasingly under threat due to contamination from mining and intensive agriculture. In the Peruvian Andes, where small-scale dairy farming coexists with historical environmental liabilities, identifying the transfer of metals into the food chain is essential for public health. This study quantifies the concentrations of lead (Pb) and cadmium (Cd) in raw milk from small-scale producers in rural districts in the province of Huancayo. Non-carcinogenic risks for populations aged 2–85 years were assessed under three consumption scenarios. Forty-five samples were analyzed using microwave plasma atomic emission spectrometry (MP-AES). The mean concentrations of Pb and Cd were 11.30 ± 18.94 µg/kg and 7.85 ± 18.11 µg/kg, respectively, which are below the maximum permissible limits (MPL). However, spatial analysis identified critical hotspots near smelters, where Pb levels reached 103 µg/kg, which is a significant exceedance of the MPL of 20 µg/kg. Toxicological modelling showed that the Hazard Index (HI) remained below the unity threshold (HI < 1) for all scenarios, ruling out immediate systemic risks. Nevertheless, the highest HI (0.78) was observed in two-year-old children in the high-consumption scenario, highlighting a localized neurodevelopmental concern. These findings emphasize the importance of georeferenced environmental monitoring and differentiated public health policies to mitigate the chronic low-level exposure to metals in vulnerable, high-altitude populations. Full article

Rapid and accurate urea detection is of considerable importance in environmental monitoring and biomedical analysis, as abnormal urea levels are associated with water contamination and various health conditions. In this study, a silver nanoparticle-decorated graphene oxide (Ag/GO) composite was synthesized via a simple chemical reduction method. The characterization results confirmed the successful formation of well-crystalline Ag nanoparticles (7.44 ± 1.46 nm) with uniform dispersion on GO, with a Ag loading of 39.1 wt%. The electrochemical performance for urea detection was evaluated in an alkaline medium (0.1 M NaOH) using cyclic voltammetry and chronoamperometry in a three-electrode system. The Ag/GO-modified glassy carbon electrode exhibited a strong electrocatalytic response toward urea oxidation, with a linear detection range of 1–10 mM. The sensitivity and limit of detection (LOD) were 36.8 μA mM⁻¹ and 0.11 mM, respectively. The sensor also demonstrated excellent selectivity in the presence of common interfering species, including uric acid, ascorbic acid, and glucose, along with good reproducibility, repeatability, and stability. Furthermore, the practical applicability of the sensor was assessed in real samples, where satisfactory recovery was achieved in tap water, while reduced performance was observed in milk due to matrix effects. These findings indicate that the Ag/GO composite can serve as an effective alternative electrode material for non-enzymatic electrochemical detection of urea, particularly in wastewater and biological systems. Full article

This study investigated how Pb, Cd, and Cu are distributed between curd and whey during milk coagulation in milk from different animal species, and how the level of metal addition and the coagulation method influence metal retention. Raw milk from buffalo, cow, donkey, goat, and sheep was supplemented with Pb, Cd, and Cu under controlled laboratory conditions at two levels corresponding to the regulatory maximum level (ML) and ten times this level (10 × ML). All three metals were added simultaneously to the same milk aliquot, and coagulation was induced either enzymatically or by acidification at pH 4.6. Metal concentrations in curd and whey were determined by atomic absorption spectrophotometry. In all milk types, Pb, Cd, and Cu were retained mainly in the curd fraction. At ML, curd retention generally ranged from about 77% to 97%, whereas at 10 × ML, retention decreased and transfer to whey increased. Donkey milk consistently showed lower metal retention in curd than ruminant milk. Statistical analysis of curd retention showed that metal type, milk species, the level of metal addition, and their interactions significantly influenced metal retention, indicating that the effect of coagulation method depended on the experimental conditions rather than being uniform across all cases. Overall, the results show that milk coagulation favours the association of Pb, Cd, and Cu with the curd fraction, highlighting the importance of the milk protein phase in determining metal distribution during dairy processing. These findings improve our understanding of heavy-metal behaviour during milk processing and help clarify their potential transfer into curd-based dairy products. Full article

Per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFASs) are a large class of thousands of synthetic organofluorine chemical compounds used for many industrial applications. Humans are exposed to PFASs mainly through diet and contaminated drinking water. Studies show that PFASs induce several adverse effects on humans. A great number of human biomonitoring studies have been widely conducted with the aim of estimating exposure to PFASs. The matrices mainly investigated are blood, serum and breast milk. However, in many cases, the need for non-invasive sampling methods with a minimal impact on donors has become paramount to comply with modern ethical standards and regulations. For this reason, we developed a streamlined and efficient method for the analysis of eight perfluorocarboxylic and perfluorosulfonic acids (PFHpA; PFHxS; PFOA; PFHpS; PFNA; PFOS; PFDA; and PFUdA) in human urine samples by UPLC chromatography tandem mass spectrometry. Chromatographic and MS parameters were optimized; the method was validated for: repeatability (<20%), within-lab reproducibility (<20%), trueness (within the set 20% variation limit of agreement between the mean of the data set and the true value), efficiency (51–97%), linearity (R² > 0.99), limits of detection (0.0003 ng/mL), and limits of quantification (0.001 ng/mL). To our knowledge, this is the first published method in Italy for the detection of PFASs in human urine. Full article

Raw milk dairy products, an integral part of Italian food heritage, are the primary products of small-scale farms in mountain regions where pasture is seasonal. While raw milk dairy products offer potential health benefits, their physicochemical properties make them susceptible to foodborne pathogens. Long-term surveillance of these products is essential to safeguard consumer health. Here, we present a fourteen-year microbiological surveillance of raw milk dairy products and intermediate matrices from northeastern Italy’s alpine areas, analyzing coagulase-positive Staphylococci (CPS), β-glucuronidase-positive Escherichia coli, Listeria monocytogenes, and Shiga toxin-producing E. coli (STEC). The most frequently detected pathogens were CPS and β-glucuronidase-positive E. coli, with up to 19.6% and 51.7% of samples exceeding regulatory limits, respectively. Butter, curd, and fresh cream were the most contaminated matrices. Detection rates of staphylococcal enterotoxins, L. monocytogenes, and STEC aligned with European detection averages (6.7%, 2.6%, and 2.1%, respectively). These findings underscore the necessity of Good Hygiene and Management Practices, together with regular microbiological monitoring to mitigate contamination risks, supporting the safety and quality of traditional raw milk dairy products in alpine regions. Full article

Automated milk feeders (AMFs) offer significant advantages in promoting natural feeding behavior in calves and reducing manual labor. With widespread use, the impact of AMF hygiene on calf health has attracted increasing research attention, as inadequate cleaning protocols may lead to bacterial accumulation on calf-contact surfaces and subsequent health risks for calves. This study aimed to quantify bacterial contamination on AMF surfaces, evaluate the cleaning efficacy of slightly acidic electrolyzed water (SAEW) compared to warm water and chemical disinfectants (n = two total samples), and optimize SAEW cleaning parameters using response surface methodology (RSM). Results revealed that bacterial loads on five high-frequency calf-contact surfaces ranged from 5.48 to 8.21 log₁₀ CFU/cm². SAEW at 60 mg/L achieved significantly higher cleaning efficacy than warm water and chemical disinfectants under field conditions (p < 0.01). Through RSM optimization (highly significant (p < 0.001)), the optimal SAEW cleaning parameters were determined as follows: cleaning time of 35 s, cleaning temperature of 78 °C, and available chlorine concentration (ACC) of 108 mg/L. Under the optimized parameters, bacterial and adenosine triphosphate (ATP) removal rates reached approximately 98%. These findings suggest that SAEW is a promising alternative sanitation agent for AMFs, provide preliminary parameters for rapid sanitation under the tested conditions, and hold the potential to support the standardized hygiene control of calf feeding equipment. Full article

Mycotoxin contamination remains a persistent threat to food safety in the Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC) and neighboring countries, driven by conducive tropical agroecological conditions, inadequate post-harvest practices, and limited regulatory governance. This critical narrative review (2009–2024) synthesizes the occurrence data for major staple foods (maize, peanuts, cassava, sorghum, millet, and beans) and dairy products compiled from Google Scholar, ScienceDirect, MDPI and institutional sources. It examines the co-occurrence patterns, exposure pathways, and analytical and regulatory gaps. Warm, humid lowland environments favor Aspergillus and aflatoxins, whereas cooler, humid highland zones promote Fusarium, fumonisins, and deoxynivalenol. Across commodities, contamination intensifies along food value chains through inadequate drying, non-hermetic storage, insect damage, and prolonged handling, with processed products generally exhibiting the highest levels of mycotoxins. Regulated mycotoxins, including aflatoxins, fumonisins, trichothecenes, ochratoxins, and zearalenone, frequently exceed European Union (EU), East African Community (EAC), and Codex Alimentarius Commission (CAC) limits in staple foods. Their co-occurrence is widespread, including emerging mycotoxins such as beauvericin and enniatins, particularly in maize- and peanut-based products, raising concerns about potential additive or synergistic effects. Aflatoxin M1 in milk highlights plant–feed–animal–human transfer within a One Health framework. Despite increasing evidence, the available data remain fragmented and heterogeneous; rapid tests dominate, while few studies employ multi-mycotoxin LC-MS/MS methods. Cross-border trade between countries, such as Uganda, Tanzania, Zambia and Angola, facilitates the circulation of contaminated commodities in the absence of harmonized standards and risk-based controls. Priorities include harmonized regional surveillance, biomarker-based co-exposure assessment, cost-effectiveness evaluation of mitigation strategies, and regulatory alignment at borders. Coordinated, multisectoral action is essential to reduce chronic dietary exposure and improve food safety across the region. Full article

This study evaluated contamination by polychlorinated dibenzodioxins and dibenzofurans (PCDDs/Fs) and polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) in 390 feeds and 1756 food samples collected in Latium and Tuscany (Italy, 2016–2025) using HRGC-HRMS. PCDDs/Fs and dioxin-like PCBs (dl-PCBs) are expressed as WHO 2005 toxic equivalents (WHO₀₅-TEQ). Non-dioxin-like PCBs (ndl-PCBs) lack dioxin-like toxicity mechanisms due to their non-coplanar structure and are not assigned a toxic equivalence factor. Feed results were normalised to 12% moisture content. Median levels of WHO₀₅-PCDDs/Fs+dl-PCBs TEQ at the upper limit in feed were 10–100 times lower than those reported in European monitoring data (EFSA, 2002–2010) for comparable categories, including additives, premixtures, raw materials and compound feed, with plant and animal feed materials below 0.03 ng/kg and aquaculture feed at 0.24 ng/kg. Food contamination was generally low, with the median WHO₀₅-PCDDs/Fs+dl-PCBs TEQ 2–4 times lower than Italian national data (2013–2016), considering comparable categories such as meat, fish, milk, eggs, oils, baby foods, marine oils, animal fats and liver. Higher levels were observed in game meat, sheep products and fermented milk than in pork and poultry. The contamination remained stable over time. These results indicate an improvement in food safety thanks to national and EU regulations, although continued surveillance of high-risk and undersampled categories remains essential. Full article

The antimicrobial potential of the strain Lactiplantibacillus plantarum CNPC001 in fermented raw goat milk against contamination indicators (Escherichia coli, Staphylococcus spp., Salmonella spp., as well as yeasts and molds) was assessed. To do this, two distinct treatments were produced in triplicate in raw goat milk, one only with the starter Streptococcus thermophilus QGE (T1) and the other with the starter and Lp. plantarum CNPC001 in co-culture (T2). The main bio-preservative effect of Lp. plantarum CNPC001 in co-culture with S. thermophilus was verified against E. coli and Staphylococcus spp., in which E. coli was completely inhibited at the end of fermentation and Staphylococcus spp. remained below the method threshold (<2.00 log CFU/g) from the 14th day up to the end of storage. For Salmonella spp., a significant difference between the fermented milks was verified at the end of fermentation process, in which the absence of this microorganism was only verified in the T2. No significant differences between the T1 and T2 were verified for yeast and molds. The viability of Lp. plantarum remained above 7 log CFU g⁻¹ for 28 days of storage. Therefore Lp. plantarum CNPC001 in co-culture with S. thermophilus QGE was able to demonstrate a bio-preservative effect in fermented raw goat milk, inhibiting the growth of E. coli, S. aureus, and Salmonella spp. Full article

Campylobacter spp. constitutes a significant global public health hazard as it is a leading cause of reported foodborne diseases. Human infection is predominantly acquired through the ingestion of contaminated food, unpasteurized milk and untreated water, prompting the widespread implementation of chemical disinfection across several sectors, from healthcare, domestic environments, and food-processing to animal husbandry. While these biocidal agents encompass multiples classes with different modes of action and efficacy, growing evidence suggests that their extensive and repeated use may unintentionally promote bacterial persistence, tolerance and adaptive responses. Although biocide resistance has been documented in several foodborne pathogens, data on biocide tolerance in Campylobacter spp. remain limited. Available studies report variable degrees of reduced susceptibility to commonly used biocides among isolates originating from poultry production, food-processing environments, and water systems. Importantly, while biocide-induced adaptive responses in Campylobacter spp. may potentially overlap with antimicrobial resistance mechanisms, the extent to which these agents drive co-selection, persistence, or dissemination requires further elucidation. Evidence remains limited on the effects of long-term and repeated exposure under realistic processing conditions, the interplay between stress-induced gene regulation and stable genetic changes, and the contribution of mobile genetic elements, biofilm formation, and microbial communities in shaping antimicrobial resistance evolution. In light of the global health burden imposed by campylobacteriosis and the rising challenge of antimicrobial-resistant Campylobacter, this review brings together current evidence on the role of biocides in shaping bacterial survival, adaptation, and resistance mechanisms. Full article

Hafnia alvei, which belongs to the Enterobacteriaceae family, has been occasionally documented in animal infections but is still not well characterized in the context of bovine mastitis. This research examined the prevalence and antimicrobial resistance characteristics of H. alvei in dairy cows suffering from subclinical mastitis in South Africa’s Free State Province. In the Thabo Mofutsanyana District, a total of 174 milk samples were obtained from cows on six different dairy farms. The California Mastitis Test (CMT) was used to screen for subclinical mastitis, and somatic cell count was used to confirm it. Standard culture methods were used for bacterial isolation, and presumptive Enterobacteriaceae isolates were identified through matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization time-of-flight mass spectrometry (MALDI-TOF MS). Out of the 174 samples, 84 (48.2%) tested positive for CMT, and 68 (39.1%) met the SCC criteria for subclinical mastitis at a cow level, while 96/336 (28.5%) were infected at a quarter level. Of the 100 presumptive Enterobacteriaceae isolates, 33 (33.0%) were identified as H. alvei (p = 0.0034). Antimicrobial susceptibility testing showed that 50% of the isolates were resistant to penicillin, followed by tetracycline and erythromycin with 25% and 10%, respectively. Furthermore, the results showed that 17 (51.5%) isolates exhibited multidrug-resistant profiles. The results suggest that H. alvei could be a contaminant in raw milk associated with bovine subclinical mastitis in this area, necessitating additional epidemiological research that includes healthy matched controls. Full article

The bovine milk microbiome is a complex and dynamic microbial ecosystem, comprising both commensal and pathogenic bacteria. Its composition is shaped by endogenous factors, including udder physiology, lactation stage, and health status, particularly mastitis, as well as by exogenous factors, such as housing conditions, farm infrastructure, milking practices, and post-milking processing. Mastitis not only alters milk quality but also induces persistent dysbiosis that may persist even after clinical recovery, highlighting the need for continuous microbiome monitoring to ensure milk safety. Advances in molecular and metagenomic techniques have enabled the detection of microbial taxa that are difficult to identify using traditional culture-based methods. However, challenges remain due to low microbial biomass, reagent contamination, and the inability to distinguish live from dead bacteria, all of which complicate accurate characterization. Environmental contamination from skin, air, and equipment, along with microbial shifts during transport, storage, pasteurization, and product separation, further modulate microbial communities. While mastitis-related changes in milk microbiota have been extensively studied, the effects of other bovine diseases and systemic health conditions remain largely unexplored, constituting a critical knowledge gap. Understanding the factors that shape milk microbial communities is essential for ensuring dairy product safety, optimizing herd management, and developing microbiome-based innovations in milk production. Full article