Search Results (34)

High-intensity interval training (HIIT) is widely used to enhance aerobic performance in combat sports, yet the molecular mechanisms underlying training adaptation remain unclear. This study investigated whether changes in circulating myokine–adipokine profiles are associated with aerobic performance adaptation following sport-specific HIIT in trained combat athletes. Forty elite male kickboxers were randomly assigned to a HIIT group (n = 20) or a control group (n = 20). The HIIT group performed an eight-week sport-specific HIIT program in addition to regular training, whereas the control group maintained their usual training routines. Aerobic capacity was assessed using maximal oxygen uptake (VO₂max). Fasting blood samples were collected before and after the intervention to determine circulating apelin, irisin, brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF), myostatin, fibroblast growth factor-21 (FGF21), and adiponectin concentrations. VO₂max increased significantly in the HIIT group compared with the control group (+2.10 ± 1.10 vs. +0.35 ± 0.80 mL·kg⁻¹·min⁻¹, p = 0.001). In addition, apelin, irisin, BDNF, FGF21, and adiponectin increased, whereas myostatin decreased following the intervention. Changes in myostatin were negatively correlated with improvements in VO₂max (r = −0.55, p = 0.007), suggesting that reductions in myostatin may serve as a molecular indicator of aerobic adaptation in combat athletes. Full article

Background/Objectives: Combat sports are characterised by successive high-intensity and short-duration episodes (rounds) interspersed with short rest periods (intermittent nature). Athletes’ body composition and dietary intake are closely related to physiological demands, and they are determining factors in athletic performance. The aim of this systematic review was to describe the body composition, dietary intake, and food habits of male and female combat sports athletes, and to verify whether they met nutritional recommendations. Methods: A search was performed in the PubMed, Web of Science, and Scopus databases following the PRISMA statement. The timeframe for the search included studies from the year 2000 until 2 February 2026. Risk of bias was assessed using the STROBE and the Newcastle–Ottawa checklists. Initially, 328 documents were identified. The research focused on amateur, semi-professional, or professional athletes in boxing, karate, kickboxing, jiu-jitsu, taekwondo, judo, muay thai, and mixed martial arts (MMA). Results: After screening, 23 studies met the inclusion criteria and were included in the review. Most of the athletes, both men and women, had normal body mass indices (BMIs), with low or normal fat percentages and adequate muscle mass during both reference and pre-competitive periods. Regarding dietary intake, most of the athletes, male and female, had energy and carbohydrate intakes below official recommendations. Energy and nutrient intake decreased during pre-competition periods as a strategy for achieving pre-competitive rapid weight loss, which mainly occurred at the expense of lean mass. Conclusions: Despite maintaining adequate body composition, combat sports athletes reported an inadequate dietary pattern, especially during pre-competitive periods, which may negatively affect athletic performance. Full article

Leg kicks are fundamental techniques in combat sports based on a proximal-distal sequence involving several factors that can affect mechanical efficiency and injury risk. However, there is a lack of comprehensive reviews that integrate biomechanical and epidemiological evidence on injuries in an interdisciplinary context. Background/Objectives: This narrative review synthesizes current evidence to explore the relationship between mechanical efficiency and injury risk in kick-based combat sports. Methods: The search was conducted across Web of Science and Scopus (January 2000–March 2025) or studies investigating the biomechanics and injury risk factors associated with leg kicks in Taekwondo, Karate, Muay Thai, Kickboxing, and MMA. Results: Analysis of 23 studies identified three primary technical determinants of efficiency: stance mechanics, hip rotation, and striking-surface selection. High-impact force is consistently associated with a pivoted support leg stance and proximal-to-distal coordination. However, these same mechanics create specific “load concentrations” that align with documented injury profiles: pivoted stances increase rotational stress on the support leg knee (ACL/meniscal strain), while striking-surface choice (shin vs. instep) dictates the trade-off between tibial stress and metatarsal/ankle trauma. Conclusions: This review proposes an Integrated mechanical efficiency–injury model that suggests that performance optimization and injury awareness are two sides of the same biomechanical process. Future research should fill the gaps relating to the subject’s age and gender parity, as well as direct comparisons between different sports. Full article

Background/Objectives: Many studies in the literature are increasingly focusing on how genes influence the development of individual behaviors and personality traits through genome sequencing. Most research indicates that complex behaviors and their characteristics are influenced by multiple genes, highlighting the crucial role of genetic studies in this field. Behavioral genetics, as a scientific discipline, investigates how genetic factors shape individuals’ behaviors and personality traits. The concepts of violence and aggression, observable in various contexts, have been extensively studied, with a particular focus on the underlying causes of these behaviors. In sports, where physical strength plays a significant role, regulations designed to prevent violent behaviors and aggressive attitudes contribute to the establishment of appropriate behavior patterns and discipline. Methods: This study aims to identify correlations between polymorphisms found in athletes and their responses to questionnaires, focusing on candidate genes known to influence personality and behavior traits, such as catechol-O-methyltransferase (COMT), serotonin transporter (5-HTT), monoamine oxidase (MAO-A), and serotonin 1A transporter (5-HT1A). A total of twenty licensed athletes participated in the study. Participants completed three standardized instruments: the Sportsmanship Behavior Scale (27 items), the Sports Emotion Scale (22 items), and the Anger-Control Scale (34 items). Following the acquisition of informed consent, buccal swab samples were collected for single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) analysis targeting the COMT, MAO-A, 5- HT1A, and 5-HTT genes. Subsequent to sample collection and questionnaire administration, statistical analyses were conducted to evaluate the relationships among behavioral measures and genetic variants. Results: Overall, the findings point to gene-specific patterns in 5-HTT, MAO-A, and COMT, while no clear pattern emerged for 5-HT1A. Conclusions: Ultimately, this study provides an early exploration of aggression-related genetic patterns within the context of forensic sciences, highlighting preliminary trends and potential associations that may inform the design of future research. Full article

Background: Evidence on acute endocrine responses to K-1 kickboxing is limited. This pilot study assessed pre-to-post changes in GH, IGF-1 and insulin after a single K-1 bout and explored relationships with training experience (TE), final heart rate (HRFINAL) and perceived exertion (RPE). Methods: Elite male K-1 athletes (n = 10) completed an interclub, referee-supervised three-round bout (3 × 2 min). Venous blood was sampled pre-fight and +2 min. GH, IGF-1 and insulin were assayed (ELISA). Paired t-tests and Pearson’s r quantified changes and associations. Results: GH rose from 1.20 ± 2.05 to 11.27 ± 8.82 ng/mL (p = 0.007; d = 1.85), and insulin from 5.95 ± 1.56 to 12.95 ± 5.95 µU/mL (p = 0.002; d = 1.86); IGF-1 showed no change (200.90 ± 55.89 to 203.00 ± 54.10 ng/mL; p = 0.497). ΔGH and Δinsulin correlated positively with HRFINAL (rp = 0.89 and 0.88, both p < 0.001) and RPE (rp = 0.70 and 0.68; p = 0.024 and 0.031), and negatively with TE (rp = −0.72 and −0.68; p = 0.019 and 0.031). Conclusions: A single K-1 fight elicited large acute increases in GH and insulin but not IGF-1 at +2 min. HRFINAL and RPE tracked response magnitude, while more experienced athletes showed smaller deltas. Findings are preliminary and limited by a small sample, elite-only cohort, in an interclub setting, with immediate sampling and absence of a control group. Full article

Background: Athletes’ skin is exposed to increased microbial challenges due to rigorous physical activity, perspiration, constant “skin-to-skin” contact, frequent showering, use of hygiene products, and environmental factors present in training settings. This study aims to characterize the skin microbiome communities of young wrestlers and kickboxers in comparison with their non-athlete age-peers. Methods: A total of 56 combat sport athletes (30 males and 26 females, mean age ± SD = 18.2 ± 1.5 years) and 25 non-athlete youths (control group: 13 males and 12 females, mean age ± SD = 19.8 ± 1.2 years) voluntarily consented to participate in the study conducted by our research team in 2023 and 2024. The skin microbiome analysis involved standardized sampling, DNA isolation, molecular sequencing, and bioinformatic analysis, thus enabling detailed characterization and comparison of the skin microbial community in contact sports athletes and the control group. Results: Our results revealed notable sexual dimorphism in the skin microbiome composition of youth. Males showed a higher relative abundance of bacterial genera associated with nosocomial infections and respiratory diseases, while females had more skin inflammation- and infection-related genera (relative abundances in males vs. in females: Corynebacterium—12.0 vs. 7.2; Luteimonas—4.4. vs. 1.4; Paracoccus—8.8 vs. 5.0; Psychrobacter—6.3 vs. 4.4; Cutibacterium—6.4 vs. 11.4; Kocuria—1.6 vs. 3.9; Micrococcus—5.8 vs. 8.5; Pseudomonas—1.2 vs. 3.4; Streptococcus 3.3 vs. 6.2). We also found skin microbiome differences between athletes and non-athletes in both sexes: wrestlers, who experience frequent skin-to-skin contact and wear less covering sportswear, had microbiome profiles distinct from both kickboxers and non-athletes (relative abundances in athletes vs. in non-athletes: Psychrobacter—7.3 vs. 0.4; Staphylococcus 9.5 vs. 18.5; predominance of genera by sports type: relative abundance of Cutibacterium and Streptococcus was higher in kickboxers, and relative abundance of Acinetobacter, Enhydrobacter, Micrococcus, and Enhydrobacter was higher in wrestlers). Bacteria linked to skin infections (e.g., Aliterella, Arthrobacter, and Empedobacter) were present in around 30% of wrestlers and kickboxers but were absent in the control group. Conclusions: These results underscore the heightened risk of skin infections in contact sports and highlight the importance of regular microbiome monitoring and hygiene protocols among young athletes. Full article

Sedentary behavior among young women is increasingly associated with adverse metabolic and cardiovascular outcomes. The aim of this randomized controlled trial was to evaluate and compare the effects of three structured group fitness programs on anthropometric parameters, body composition, and lipid profile in overweight young women (N = 111, age 18–25, BMI ≥ 25). Participants were assigned to mix aerobics (E1, n = 27), kickbox aerobics (E2, n = 28), step aerobics (E3, n = 27), or a control group (C, n = 29). Each intervention lasted 12 weeks, with sessions conducted three times per week, each lasting 60 min. The results were analyzed using repeated measures ANOVA. Significant reductions were observed in body weight (−4.8 kg in E1, p < 0.01), waist circumference (−5.3 cm in E1, p < 0.001), and body fat percentage (−3.6% in E1, p < 0.01). High-density lipoprotein (HDL) increased by 7.4 mg/dL (p < 0.01), while low-density lipoprotein (LDL), total cholesterol, and triglycerides decreased by 12.1 mg/dL, 18.6 mg/dL, and 19.4 mg/dL, respectively (all p < 0.01). The most pronounced overall improvements were found in the mix aerobics group. In contrast, the control group showed significant deterioration in most variables, including a 2.1 kg weight gain and a 6.3 mg/dL increase in total cholesterol (p < 0.05). These findings confirm the superior effectiveness of mix aerobics as a non-pharmacological intervention to improve body composition (notably through reductions in body weight, fat percentage, and waist circumference) and cardiovascular biomarkers (such as increased HDL and decreased LDL, total cholesterol, and triglycerides) in young overweight women. Compared to kickboxing and step aerobics, mix aerobics consistently achieved the greatest improvements across all measured parameters, making it the most comprehensive and effective option among the three programs tested. Full article

Introduction: Combat sport athletes are exposed to repetitive head impacts yet also develop distinct performance-related brain adaptations. Electroencephalography (EEG) provides millisecond-level insight into both processes; however, findings are dispersed across decades of heterogeneous studies. This mechanistic review consolidates and interprets EEG evidence to elucidate how participation in combat sports shapes brain function and to identify research gaps that impede clinical translation. Methods: A structured search was conducted in March 2025 across PubMed/MEDLINE, Scopus, Cochrane Library, ResearchGate, Google Scholar, and related databases for English-language clinical studies published between January 1980 and March 2025. Eligible studies recorded raw resting or task-related EEG in athletes engaged in boxing, wrestling, judo, karate, taekwondo, kickboxing, or mixed martial arts. Titles, abstracts, and full texts were independently screened by two reviewers. Twenty-three studies, encompassing approximately 650 combat sport athletes and 430 controls, met the inclusion criteria and were included in the qualitative synthesis. Results: Early visual EEG and perfusion studies linked prolonged competitive exposure in professional boxers to focal hypoperfusion and low-frequency slowing. More recent quantitative studies refined these findings: across boxing, wrestling, and kickboxing cohorts, chronic participation was associated with reduced alpha and theta power, excess slow-wave activity, and disrupted small-world network topology—alterations that often preceded cognitive or structural impairments. In contrast, elite athletes in karate, fencing, and kickboxing consistently demonstrated neural efficiency patterns, including elevated resting alpha power, reduced task-related event-related desynchronization (ERD), and streamlined cortico-muscular coupling during cognitive and motor tasks. Acute bouts elicited transient increases in frontal–occipital delta and high beta power proportional to head impact count and cortisol elevation, while brief judo chokes triggered short-lived slow-wave bursts without lasting dysfunction. Methodological heterogeneity—including variations in channel count (1 to 64), reference schemes, and frequency band definitions—limited cross-study comparability. Conclusions: EEG effectively captures both the adverse effects of repetitive head trauma and the cortical adaptations associated with high-level combat sport training, underscoring its potential as a rapid, portable tool for brain monitoring. Standardizing acquisition protocols, integrating EEG into longitudinal multimodal studies, and establishing sex- and age-specific normative data are essential for translating these insights into practical applications in concussion management, performance monitoring, and regulatory policy. Full article

Background/Objectives: The purpose of this study was to assess the body posture of kickboxing players. Methods: The study group included people training as kickboxers who actively participated in the training camp of the broad national junior team in the K1 and low-kick kickboxing leagues. The control group consisted of non-training people. The age of the study group ranged from 15 to 23 years. The ages of the control group participants varied from 14 to 20 years. A body posture test was performed by using the Moiré method, in accordance with the guidelines of the manufacturer of the Moiré 4G device. Results: The body posture test performed using the Moiré method showed statistically significant differences between the kickboxing training group and the control group. The parameters that showed statistically significant differences included the size of lordosis (KLL) and the depth of lordosis (GLL) in the lumbar spine. Higher values were observed in the kickboxing training group compared to the control group. There was no statistically significant difference between the kickboxing group and the control group in other parameters. Conclusions: The asymmetrical and flexed posture required during kickboxing training did not negatively influence the competitors’ spinal curvatures. Kickboxers had increased lumbar lordosis, which may be related to the specificity of the given discipline (stretching of the hamstrings and specific movements). This is a beneficial phenomenon that may reduce the risk of lower back pain. Kickboxing training did not affect the asymmetry of body posture in the sagittal plane. Full article

Background: Traumatic dental injuries (TDIs) are a common complication in sports, with an overall prevalence ranging from 0.71% to 60%. Kickboxing is a high-risk combat sport for trauma to the facial region. Methods: A total of 142 5-to-65-year-old amateur athletes participated in the survey with a questionnaire that was released during their regular practice days. The questionnaire was structured into three parts: (1) questions about age, gender, type, and time of sports practice; (2) questions about dental injuries, personal experience, and awareness of emergency management, particularly about tooth avulsion; (3) questions about wearing a mouthguard for TDI prevention. Results: A total of 13 percent of athletes suffered a TDI while training or fighting. Regarding first aid, 61% of the participants in this survey are aware of the possibility of replanting a tooth after its avulsion; 10% believe that the tooth should be replanted within 15 min, and 37% of athletes believe that it should be kept wet. The mouthguard is known to the majority of athletes (94%), and 66% were informed by the coach; 68% of the athletes use it. Seventy-four percent of the mouthguards were purchased in a sports shop. Conclusions: A relatively low prevalence of TDIs was observed in players in the sample. A lack of information about the emergency management of tooth avulsion and about the type of mouthguard to wear emphasizes the importance of educational training by dentists to athletes and coaches. Full article

Background: High-intensity anaerobic physical training frequently leads to muscle fatigue among boxers and kickboxers. Vibrational therapy (VT) and passive rest (PR) have been employed as methods to enhance muscular recovery and performance. This study evaluates the effectiveness of these two recovery methods on upper limb muscle strength and lactate levels in plasma after high-intensity exertion. Methods: Eighteen elite boxers and kickboxers, aged 19–32 years, underwent tests employing VT and PR as recovery methods in a controlled, crossover study. Muscle performance was assessed via isokinetic dynamometry, and lactate levels were measured pre-exercise, post-exercise, and post-recovery. The study adhered to the Declaration of Helsinki guidelines and was approved by the relevant bioethics committee. Results: The results showed that VT led to a faster recruitment of muscle fibers and improved muscle endurance as indicated by decreased fatigue work indices compared to PR. However, no significant differences were observed in peak torque or lactate levels between the two recovery methods. The VT group exhibited quicker recovery times in torque generation and better performance in fatigue resistance. Conclusions: VT appears to provide superior muscular recovery compared to PR following intense anaerobic effort, particularly in terms of muscle strength endurance and activation speed. These findings support the potential of VT in sports recovery protocols, although similar lactate response suggests that metabolic recovery rates are not significantly affected. Full article

While there is clear evidence in the literature that the hematological parameters in athletes of different sports are affected by exercise and varying loads, to our knowledge, there are limited studies on the real impact of kickboxing matches on kickboxers’ hematological parameters. In this context, this cross-sectional study was conducted to examine the acute changes in the hematological parameters of kickboxers following K1 matches. With the participation of 10 kickboxing K1 athletes, the hematological parameters, including the WBC, Plt, Neut, Lymph, Mono, RBC, Hgb, Hct, CK, La, and glucose levels, were examined before and after matches. Paired sample t-tests were used to compare the pre-test and post-test hematological parameters of the participants. The findings indicated statistically significant differences in the post-match WBC, Plt, Neut, Lymph, CK, La, and glucose levels, while no statistically significant differences were observed in the RBC, Hct, Hgb, and CK levels (p < 0.05). These results not only emphasize the complexity of physiological changes in athletes, but also show consistency with various findings in the literature, while contradicting some. Therefore, it is highlighted that further research is needed to understand the effects of K1 matches on hematological parameters. Full article

Although studies have indicated that the prior use of video feedback and music listening separately improves physical performance and positive feelings in various sports, to our knowledge, no studies have investigated their combined effect in combat-sports-specific tasks. The aim of this study was to determine the combined effect of listening to preferred music and video feedback on aerobic and anaerobic performance in male kickboxers. In a counterbalanced crossover study design, twenty kickboxers underwent three kicking exercises under one of three conditions: (1) control condition, (2) combined listening to preferred music and video feedback, and (3) video feedback during 10-min of rope warm-up. Kickboxers performed a ten-second kicking test, multiple ten-second kick test, and progressive taekwondo test. The total number of kicks, fatigue index, heart rate, rate of perceived exertion, and feeling scale were measured. The combined music and video feedback condition improved the number of kicks with a better positive feeling scale (F ≥ 7.4, p ≤ 0.002, η_p² ≥ 0.28) than the video feedback and control conditions in all three kicking exercises, while the video feedback alone led to better kick performances and a better feeling scale than the control condition in the ten-second and multiple ten-second kicking tests (p ≤ 0.016). The combined listening to preferred music and video feedback condition was more effective at enhancing the positive feeling scale and repeated roundhouse kick performance. Future investigations should examine the application of video feedback and listening to music in various kickboxing tasks including punches and kicks. Full article

Kicking strikes are fundamental in combat sports such as Taekwondo, karate, kickboxing, Muay Thai, and mixed martial arts. This review aimed to explore the measurement methods, kinematics such as velocities, kinetics such as impact force, determinants, and injury potential of kicking strikes in combat sports. Searches of Academic Search Premier, The Allied and Complementary Medicine Database, CINAHL Plus, MEDLINE, SPORTDiscus, Scopus, and Web of Science databases were conducted for studies that measured kicking velocity and impact force. A total of 88 studies were included in the review. Studies most frequently involved only male participants (49%) aged between 18 and 30 years of age (68%). Studies measuring velocity predominantly implemented camera-based motion capture systems (96%), whereas studies measuring impact force displayed considerable heterogeneity in their measurement methods. Five primary strikes were identified for which foot velocities ranged from 5.2 to 18.3 m/s and mean impact force ranged from 122.6 to 9015 N. Among the techniques analysed, the roundhouse kick exhibited the highest kicking velocity at 18.3 m/s, whilst the side kick produced the highest impact force at 9015 N. Diverse investigation methodologies contributed to a wide value range for kicking velocities and impact forces being reported, making direct comparisons difficult. Kicking strikes can be categorised into throw-style or push-style kicks, which modulate impact through different mechanisms. Kicking velocity and impact force are determined by several factors, including technical proficiency, lower body strength and flexibility, effective mass, and target factors. The impact force generated by kicking strikes is sufficient to cause injury, including fracture. Protective equipment can partially attenuate these forces, although more research is required in this area. Athletes and coaches are advised to carefully consider the properties and potential limitations of measurement devices used to assess impact force. Full article

Background: Correct movement techniques are crucial for enhancing athletic performance and minimizing the risk of injury. This is particularly true for kickboxing, in which a variety of forms of locomotion are employed. Despite its importance, gait and movement analysis in this sport is under-researched. The primary objective of this study is to understand gait patterns and limb symmetry between the dominant and non-dominant legs among professional kickboxers and to explore their correlation with the level of technical and tactical preparation. Methods: A cross-sectional observational study was conducted involving 20 elite kickboxers. Data collection employed the 3D Force Treadmill for gait parameters, as well as simulated sparring sessions to evaluate technical–tactical indices. Various gait parameters were analyzed, including the center of pressure (COP), gait phase, spatial and time parameters, as well as reaction force. Results: No significant bilateral differences were found in the majority of gait variables. Exceptions were in the medio-lateral component of the COP and force, where more deviation was observed in the non-dominant foot. The only noted significant correlation was between lateral symmetry and attack activity. Conclusions: This study allows us to indicate that kickboxers’ training promotes symmetrical gait patterns. Targeted training interventions could further optimize these patterns. The significant relationship between lateral symmetry and attack activity suggests areas for future research and potential performance improvement. The results of this study contribute to athletes’ self-monitoring and coaching strategies. Full article