Search Results (77)

Sleep is critical for cognitive and psychomotor performance in demanding decision-making contexts such as sports officiating. Given the lack of research in the field, the cognitive complexity, and the high-pressure environment of judo refereeing, this study aimed to evaluate the sleep quality of active judo referees and examine differences based on gender, age, refereeing experience, and athletic background. This cross-sectional study included 73 active Turkish judo referees (42 male, 31 female; age = 29.8 ± 11.0 years). Participants completed the Pittsburgh Sleep Quality Index (PSQI), and data were analysed using t-tests, ANOVA, correlation, regression, and mediation analyses. Data showed a mean sleep time of 7:43 + 1:27 and a total PSQI score of 7.21 + 3.53, and participants had been referees for a mean of 6.58 + 8.12 years. The overall sleep quality was suboptimal, with female referees reporting significantly poorer sleep than males. No significant differences in PSQI scores were found across referee seniority levels or educational levels. Correlation analysis showed significant negative associations between PSQI scores and both age and refereeing experience. The final hierarchical regression model with the age, gender, and athletic background significantly predicted PSQI scores. Mediation analysis further revealed that referee qualification level indirectly influenced sleep quality through age. The study is the first one in this area of judo referring, and it highlights poor sleep quality among judo referees, regardless of experience or qualification level, with gender, age, and athletic background emerging as key predictors. The lack of sleep education in both athletic and refereeing careers suggests a need for targeted interventions, especially for younger and female referees, to improve performance and prevent health issues. Further research is needed to explore these relationships over time and in elite-level referees. Full article

Introduction: Combat sport athletes are exposed to repetitive head impacts yet also develop distinct performance-related brain adaptations. Electroencephalography (EEG) provides millisecond-level insight into both processes; however, findings are dispersed across decades of heterogeneous studies. This mechanistic review consolidates and interprets EEG evidence to elucidate how participation in combat sports shapes brain function and to identify research gaps that impede clinical translation. Methods: A structured search was conducted in March 2025 across PubMed/MEDLINE, Scopus, Cochrane Library, ResearchGate, Google Scholar, and related databases for English-language clinical studies published between January 1980 and March 2025. Eligible studies recorded raw resting or task-related EEG in athletes engaged in boxing, wrestling, judo, karate, taekwondo, kickboxing, or mixed martial arts. Titles, abstracts, and full texts were independently screened by two reviewers. Twenty-three studies, encompassing approximately 650 combat sport athletes and 430 controls, met the inclusion criteria and were included in the qualitative synthesis. Results: Early visual EEG and perfusion studies linked prolonged competitive exposure in professional boxers to focal hypoperfusion and low-frequency slowing. More recent quantitative studies refined these findings: across boxing, wrestling, and kickboxing cohorts, chronic participation was associated with reduced alpha and theta power, excess slow-wave activity, and disrupted small-world network topology—alterations that often preceded cognitive or structural impairments. In contrast, elite athletes in karate, fencing, and kickboxing consistently demonstrated neural efficiency patterns, including elevated resting alpha power, reduced task-related event-related desynchronization (ERD), and streamlined cortico-muscular coupling during cognitive and motor tasks. Acute bouts elicited transient increases in frontal–occipital delta and high beta power proportional to head impact count and cortisol elevation, while brief judo chokes triggered short-lived slow-wave bursts without lasting dysfunction. Methodological heterogeneity—including variations in channel count (1 to 64), reference schemes, and frequency band definitions—limited cross-study comparability. Conclusions: EEG effectively captures both the adverse effects of repetitive head trauma and the cortical adaptations associated with high-level combat sport training, underscoring its potential as a rapid, portable tool for brain monitoring. Standardizing acquisition protocols, integrating EEG into longitudinal multimodal studies, and establishing sex- and age-specific normative data are essential for translating these insights into practical applications in concussion management, performance monitoring, and regulatory policy. Full article

Background and Objectives: This study aimed to investigate the effects of different tension loads in post-activation potentiation protocols on agility and vertical jump performance across different times of day in trained judokas, addressing a significant gap in understanding the interaction between diurnal variations and post-activation potentiation protocol responses in combat sports. Materials and Methods: Seventeen male judokas (age: 21.41 ± 1.37 years) with ≥2 years of training experience participated in the study. Participants completed three different protocols: specific warm-up, the 80% post-activation potentiation protocol, and the 100% post-activation potentiation protocol, performed both in the morning (09:00–11:00) and evening (17:00–19:00) sessions. Performance was assessed using the Illinois Agility Test and countermovement jump. Protocols were randomized and counterbalanced over a 3-week period, with a minimum 48 h recovery between sessions. Statistical analysis employed repeated measures ANOVA (3 × 2) with Greenhouse–Geisser corrections. Results: Significant differences were observed in both protocols and time interactions for agility (F = 41.691, ηp² = 0.864, p < 0.001; F = 23.893, ηp² = 0.123, p < 0.001) and countermovement jump performance (F = 7.471, ηp² = 0.410, p = 0.002; F = 38.651, ηp² = 0.530, p < 0.001). The 80% post-activation potentiation protocol demonstrated superior performance outcomes compared to both specific warm-up and 100% post-activation potentiation protocols. Evening performances were generally better than morning performances for both agility and countermovement jump; however, the protocols/time interaction was not statistically significant (p > 0.05). Conclusions: The 80% post-activation potentiation protocol was most effective for enhancing both agility and vertical jump performance in judokas, with superior results observed during evening sessions. These findings provide valuable insights for optimizing warm-up strategies in judo competition, suggesting that lower-intensity post-activation potentiation protocols might be more beneficial than maximal loading, particularly during evening competitions. Full article

Background/Objectives: This study aimed to examine differences in motor competence and muscular fitness between children engaged in combat sports and their peers who do not participate in structured physical activity. Methods: The sample consisted of 120 healthy eight-year-old children, evenly divided into two groups: 60 children practicing combat sports (karate, judo, and wrestling) for at least one year and 60 children without structured sports involvement. Motor competence was assessed using the Test of Gross Motor Development-2 (TGMD-2), while muscular fitness was evaluated through standing broad jump, grip strength, 30 s sit-ups, bent arm hang, medicine ball throw, and push-ups. For differences between groups, the independent samples t-test was performed. Results: Results indicated that children practicing combat sports demonstrated significantly higher locomotor and manipulative skills (p < 0.01, ES = 0.76–1.25) and superior muscular fitness across all tests (p < 0.01, ES = 0.53–1.09) compared to their peers. Conclusions: These findings highlight the positive impact of combat sports on overall physical development, particularly in enhancing motor competence, muscle strength, and endurance. Given the critical role of motor competence and physical fitness at this age, integrating combat sports into daily routines can support long-term athletic development, encourage physical activity, and enhance overall health. Future research should explore the influence of specific combat sports on distinct physical attributes and consider additional factors such as total physical activity levels. Full article

Background: The specificity of the technical actions that are performed in judo may be dependent on and vary during particular phases of the combat, thus possibly impacting injury prevalence. Therefore, towards the betterment of athletes’ safety and considering the importance of the issue of injury prevention in judo, the main goal of this study was to identify the injury occurrence during respective combat phases, i.e., the (a) first half, (b) second half, (c) last minute, and (d) golden score. Methods: A total of 26,862 elite judo athletes, including 15,571 men and 11,291 women, participated in the study. The subjects competed in 128 international tournaments of the European Judo Union (EJU) in 2005–2020. The EJU medical questionnaire was utilized to gather information from each injured athlete according to the aforementioned inclusion criteria. Results: Several statistically significant relationships were found between the differences in the number of injuries between particular combat phases and the athlete’s sex. Conclusions: A significantly higher number of injuries occurred during the combined second half and the last minute of the judo combat. Males suffered more injuries during the first and second half of the combat compared to females, however, during the last minute of the combat, the number of injuries was greater among women. Full article

This study aimed to examine the acute effects of squat and ballistic jump exercises during warm-ups on judo-specific performance in young male judokas. Using a randomized crossover design, 10 sub-junior male judokas (age: 12.9 ± 0.7 years) completed three conditions: a controlled warm-up with only judo-specific exercises and two experimental warm-ups including either a three-repetition maximum (RM) back squat (with ~90% 1RM load) or ballistic jumps (squat jumps, scissor jumps, and double-leg bounds) in addition to judo-specific warm-ups. Following each warm-up condition, participants performed the Special Judo Fitness Test (SJFT), with heart rate measured immediately and one minute post-test. Handgrip strength and ratings of perceived exertion (RPE) were recorded after the SJFT. Both squat and ballistic jump exercises significantly improved judo-specific performance compared to the control condition, with large effect sizes (ESs). The number of throws in set 2 (p = 0.001, η_p² = 0.65, large ES), total throws (p < 0.001, η_p² = 0.70, large ES), and the SJFT index (p < 0.001, η_p²= 0.65, large ES) all showed significant improvements. Regarding the throw in set 2, significant improvements were observed after both squat (p = 0.003, Hedge’s g = 1.78, large ES) and ballistic jump exercises (p = 0.010, Hedge’s g = 1.44, large ES) compared to the control condition. Similarly, total throws were significantly higher in the squat (p = 0.003, Hedge’s g = 1.51, large ES) and ballistic jump (p < 0.001, Hedge’s g = 1.37, large ES) conditions compared to the control condition. Furthermore, the SJFT index showed notable improvements following squat (p = 0.010, Hedge’s g = 0.80, moderate ES) and ballistic jump (p < 0.001, Hedge’s g = 0.90, moderate ES) conditions compared to control conditions. However, squat exercises led to a significant reduction in right-hand grip strength (p < 0.001, η_p² = 0.58, large ES) [p = 0.008, Hedge’s g = 0.19, trivial ES for squat vs. control; p = 0.014, Hedge’s g = 0.23, small ES for squat vs. ballistic jump], with no differences observed in left-hand grip strength or RPE scores (p > 0.05). In conclusion, the integration of squat and ballistic jump exercises into warm-up protocols has been shown to significantly improve judo-specific performance in young male judokas without eliciting an increase in RPE values. However, careful consideration should be given when incorporating squat exercises, as they may lead to localized handgrip fatigue (reduced grip strength due to muscle exhaustion), which could affect performance in grip-dependent techniques. Full article

This study investigated the psycho-physiological impact of a black belt examination. Older brown-belt judoka (Tori, F = 2, M = 4; age = 75.6 ± 4.5 yrs) and their 2nd–5th Dan black-belt coaches (Uke; M = 6; age = 36.5 ± 10.8 yr) were evaluated during a simulated and official examination and a resting day. Participants’ trait anxiety (STAI-Y2) was recorded prior to the study. State anxiety (STAI-Y1), ratings of perceived exertion (RPE), enjoyment (ENJ), and fear of falling (FoF) were collected 15 min before and after the experimental conditions. Saliva samplings at awakening (T0), PRE (T1), and POST (T2) exercise and during the recovery (15 min-T3, 30 min-T4, 60 min-T5) were collected for cortisol (sC), testosterone (sT), and alpha-amylase (sAA). Participants showed normal age-reference population trait anxiety. A difference (p ≤ 0.05) for role emerged for ENJ and sT only. For STAI-Y1, higher PRE values with respect to POST ones emerged (p = 0.005), and the highest values (p = 0.007) for PRE of the examination were with respect to the simulation. For sAA, differences for sampling were found in the examination conditions only, with peak values at T2 (370.3 ± 78.6 U/mL, p = 0.001). For sC, a significant peak value (0.51 ± 0.09 μg/dL, p = 0.012) emerged at T2 in the examination condition. With respect to Tori, Uke showed higher mean sT values in all conditions (p ≤ 0.05) and the highest T2 during examination (712.5 ± 57.2 pg/mL). Findings suggest the relevance of monitoring psycho-physiological stress-related responses in judo for optimizing both coaching effectiveness and sport performance, especially in older judo practitioners. Full article

(1) Background. Neurofeedback has been used in sports since the 1990s, frequently showing positive outcomes in enhancing athletic performance. This systematic review provides an updated analysis of neurofeedback training in sports, evaluating reaction time, cognitive performance, and emotional regulation to address literature gaps and suggest future research directions. (2) Methods. A systematic search was conducted using PubMed, Scopus, Science Direct, and Web of Science databases for articles published from January 2016 to April 2023. The search included only original articles written in English, resulting in 24 studies meeting the inclusion criteria. (3) Results. The reviewed studies cover a wide range of sports, including golf, basketball, swimming, rifle shooting, football, volleyball, athletics, judo, ice hockey, triathlon, handball, fencing, taekwondo, and darts. They involved athletes of varying experience levels (beginners, professionals, and experts) and utilized neurofeedback training targeting different frequency bands (alpha, beta, theta, and SMR), either individually or in mixed protocols. Findings show improvements in sports and cognitive performance, emotional regulation, and anxiety management. (4) Conclusions. This systematic review supports the effectiveness of neurofeedback in enhancing sports and cognitive performance across various disciplines and experience levels. Notable improvements were observed in technical skills, physical performance parameters, scoring, attention, concentration, reaction time, short-term and working memory, self-regulation, and cognitive anxiety. Future research should standardize protocols, include more diverse samples, and explore long-term effects to further validate these findings. Full article

The personality traits of top judo referees are crucial for fair decision-making in elite competitions, shaping the experience for athletes, coaches, and spectators. This study examines potential differences in personality traits among 63 referees from the World Judo Tour between 1 January 2018 and 31 December 2022. Factors analyzed include completing the IJF Academy course Level 1, elite athlete status, number of officiated events, performance ratings, and participation in the Olympic or Paralympic Games. Our research shows that older referees tend to exhibit greater extraversion, whereas less experienced officials show lower levels of this trait. Referees with limited experience generally demonstrate higher agreeableness than their more experienced counterparts. Female referees and those with top performance ratings display greater conscientiousness than male referees. Completing the IJF Academy course is associated with lower neuroticism, while lower performance ratings are linked to higher neuroticism. Openness tends to decrease with increased officiating experience, with less experienced referees showing higher levels of this trait. In conclusion, competitive experience, training completion, and officiating tenure are associated with specific personality traits among judo referees, highlighting the importance of continuous training for effective officiating. The analysis of personality traits revealed no statistically significant differences between male and female referees in the dimensions measured by the BFI (Big Five Inventory). This indicates that the levels of extraversion, agreeableness, conscientiousness, neuroticism, and openness were similar for both genders, with no significant variation in how these traits were expressed. Full article

This study explores the association of respiratory muscle strength with aerobic endurance kinetics among athletes, with a specific focus on maximal oxygen consumption (VO₂max). Previous research has elucidated the complex interactions between respiratory and skeletal muscles during exercise, highlighting the critical role of efficient respiration in maximizing athletic performance. The interplay between active skeletal muscles and respiratory muscles, especially the influence of respiratory muscle fatigue on exercise capacity, is well-documented. High-intensity exercise has been shown to activate the respiratory muscle metaboreflex, which can restrict blood flow to working muscles, thereby impacting the energy required for respiration. A total of 41 athletes, drawn from the disciplines of biathlon, judo, and cross-country, participated in this study. Respiratory function tests (RFTs) were administered to assess various respiratory parameters, including changes in chest circumference. Additionally, maximal oxygen consumption (VO₂max) and heart rate were measured during a treadmill test. To explore the associations between VO2max and ventilatory parameters—namely, ventilation (VE), oxygen consumption (VO₂), carbon dioxide production (VCO₂)—as well as respiratory metrics, linear regression analysis was employed. Based on the standardized regression coefficients (β), it was found that maximum expiratory pressure (MEP) (mean ± SD: 130.95 ± 42.82) and inspiratory diaphragmatic circumference values were significantly associated with VE, VO₂, and VCO₂. Conversely, the other predictor variables did not exhibit a significant effect on VE (mean ± SD: 134.80 ± 36.69), VO₂ (mean ± SD: 3877.52 ± 868.47 mL), and VCO₂ (mean ± SD: 4301.27 ± 1001.07 mL). Similarly, measurements of chest circumference (mean ± SD: 91.40 ± 10.72 cm), MEP, and diaphragmatic circumference during inspiration (mean ± SD: 95.20 ± 10.21 cm) were significantly associated with VO₂max (mean ± SD: 58.52 ± 10.74 mL/kg/min), while the remaining predictor variables did not demonstrate a significant effect on VO₂max. Additionally, a multiple linear regression analysis was conducted to examine the combined effects of respiratory muscle strength and ventilatory factors on VO₂max. The model, which included interaction terms, explained 89.9% of the variance in VO₂max (R² = 0.899, adjusted R² = 0.859). Significant interactions were found between MIP and VE (B = −0.084, p = 0.006), as well as MEP and VE (B = 0.072, p = 0.012). These findings suggest that respiratory muscle strength plays a more substantial role in determining VO₂max in individuals with higher ventilatory efficiency, highlighting the importance of both respiratory strength and breathing efficiency in aerobic performance. Our findings underscore the importance of considering respiratory muscle strength in assessing and enhancing athletes’ aerobic performance. Integrating objective measurements such as maximal inspiratory and expiratory pressure assessments into routine performance evaluations allows coaches and sports scientists to monitor changes in respiratory function over time and adjust training protocols accordingly. Full article

In alignment with European policies regarding intergenerational sports, this study seeks to integrate existing evidence- (i.e., umbrella review) and eminence- (i.e., international validated educational courses for coaches) based knowledge on judo training across the lifespan. For evidence knowledge, searches of the Google Scholar, ISI-WoS, PubMed, and Scopus databases (PROSPERO ID: CRD42024535420) for studies focused on training youth and older judo practitioners, with no time restriction up to April 2024, were conducted. This resulted in 16 systematic reviews meeting the inclusion criteria, with an “excellent” (n = 6), “good” (n = 7), and “fair” (n = 3) quality according to the NIH tool. With a large sample size (n = 372,655), the reviews focused on wellbeing (n = 9; bone status, injuries, and psychophysical effects) and performance (n = 7; athlete success, combat time, rapid weight loss, and the Special Judo Fitness Test), examining athletic levels (novices to Olympics), sex, and age (children to older adults). For eminence knowledge, the International Judo Federation Academy courses encompassed the “Undergraduate Certificate as Judo Instructor” (UCJI), which provides a comprehensive structure for teaching judo, including techniques, moral code, roles, responsibilities, refereeing, safety, and age-specific belt examination requirements and progression, and the “Educating Judo Coaches for Older Practitioners” (EdJCO) curricula, which provide theoretical and applied modules (e.g., ageing, health, and organisation) to train older judo practitioners. The findings were summarised in a framework, highlighting the most relevant aspects of intergenerational judo programmes (i.e., aims, key characteristics, coaches’ roles, barriers, and facilitators). To develop a comprehensive educational intergenerational judo methodology, future research should examine coaches’ and practitioners’ opinions on intergenerational judo activities carried out in different national contexts. Full article

Judo is a sport that requires multiple high-intensity moments during the fight and high neuromuscular performance. Although not often, the explosive actions of the lower limbs can be decisive to winning in combat. This study aims to identify the differences in the neuromuscular features of the range of movements of the upper and lower limbs between the top-elite and elite male judo athletes. This cross-sectional study included 63 high-level male judo athletes, who were classified into two level groups: (i) top-elite (n = 30; age: 23.5 ± 3.2 years) and (ii) elite (n = 33; age: 22.6 ± 2.9 years). All the participants went to the laboratory for neuromuscular evaluations in the bench press (BP), prone row (PR), and repeated jump in 30 s (RJ30) tests. The results show that the top-elite judo athletes are superior in all the upper-body neuromuscular attributes studied. These differences were significantly superior in (i) BP peak velocity (p < 0.01), maximum load 1RM, power (peak and mean), force (peak and mean), force mean to peak power, and rate of force development (RFD) (all, p < 0.001); and (ii) RP maximum load 1RM (p < 0.01), power load (kg, p < 0.001; % 1RM, p < 0.05), peak power (p = 0.010), power mean (absolute, p < 0.01; relative, p < 0.05), force mean (p < 0.05), force mean to peak power (absolute, p < 0.05) and RFD (p < 0.001). However, no significant differences were observed in the BP and PR time to peak force, time to peak power, and time between peaks (power and force). In the RJ30, it was observed that the initial contact time (T1) of top-elite athletes is significantly lower than that of elite athletes (p < 0.05) and that power at 15 (T2) and 30 (T3) seconds is significantly higher in top-elite athletes (T2, p < 0.05; T3, p < 0.01). The main effect of the performance group was significant in contact time (p < 0.05), and the main effect of time was statistically significant in jump height (p < 0.001), power (p < 0.001), force (p < 0.001) and velocity (p < 0.01). In addition, jump height (p < 0.01; η²_p = 0.088) and power (p < 0.05; η²_p = 0.068) showed a significant interaction between time and performance group. These results suggested that the observed superiority of the top-elite judo athletes in neuromuscular attributes can determine success in judo competitions. This observation reinforces that neural and metabolic profiles must be considered to increase the effectiveness of maximal power training for the upper and lower body. Full article

Judo elements rely on lower and upper body muscle power, supported by the ATP-PCr energy system, which is crucial in high-intensity tasks. This study aims to assess the anaerobic status of young male competitive judokas using the upper body Wingate test and explore associations with competition performance and individual morphological characteristics. A total of 29 male judokas from the U18 and U20 age categories were tested, all actively participating in top-tier national and international competitions. Anthropometric characteristics and body composition measurements were obtained for all participants through bioelectrical impedance analysis. Anaerobic testing was conducted using the upper body Wingate test with a hand ergometer. Competition performance was recorded from the final national cup ranking list. The results presented no statistically significant correlations between morphological and anaerobic variables and competitive performance among selected participants. This highlights the importance of the necessity of updated training programs to increase the anaerobic performance of young Slovenian judokas. Additionally, it shows that in these age groups, anaerobic performance is not the crucial factor but just one piece of the puzzle in young judokas’ successful competition performance; therefore other variables should be further researched. Full article

This study investigated the associations between total and regional body composition with performance in the special judo fitness test (SJFT), as well as strength and power tests (countermovement vertical jump—CMJ, squat jump—SJ, plyometric push-up—PPU, and force push-up—FPU). Twenty-three high-level judo athletes participated in this study. Initially, they underwent dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry, after which they performed the CMJ, SJ, PPU, and FPU tests. On another day, the SJFT was carried out. Correlations were tested using Pearson’s test. The performance in the SJFT was correlated with the total and arm %fat mass (r = −0.759), torso fat mass (r = −0.802), torso %fat mass (r = −0.822) and in the lower limb regions with the leg fat mass (r = −0.803) and leg %fat (r = −0.745). In the strength and power tests, there were also negative correlations observed between regional fat and performance. There was a negative correlation between the percentage of total fat and performance in the SJFT (r = −0.824), SJ (r = −0.750), CMJ (r = −0.742), PPU (r = −0.609), and FPU (r = −0.736). Fat, both total fat and regional fat in the arms, torso, and legs, is strongly correlated with a poor performance in the SJFT and poor strength and power. Full article

Emotional intelligence is a determinant factor in sports performance. The present study analysed differences in total emotional intelligence and its four dimensions in 2166 Spanish athletes (25.20 ± 10.17 years) from eight sports (volleyball, track and field, shooting, football, basketball, handball, gymnastics, and judo). A total of 1200 men and 966 women answered anonymously using a Google Forms questionnaire sent via WhatsApp about demographics and psychological variables. A Pearson correlation was conducted to assess the age–emotional intelligence relationship. An independent T-test and One-Way ANOVA were carried out to check for age differences between biological sex and sport and a One-Way ANCOVA to determine differences between sports controlled by age. Age differences were observed by sex and sport (p < 0.001). An association was found between age and emotional intelligence dimensions (p < 0.001), except for other’s emotional appraisal (p > 0.05). Judo was the sport with the highest levels of regulation of emotions, other’s emotional appraisal, use of emotion, and total emotional intelligence (p < 0.05). Generally, emotional intelligence was found to be more developed in individual sports than in team sports, except football. Consequently, psychological skills like emotional intelligence could be critical to achieving high performance, depending on the sport. Full article