Search Results (344)

This study evaluated and compared two encapsulation techniques—co-crystallization and ionic gelation—for stabilizing bioactive components derived from lavender distillation residues. Utilizing aqueous ethanol extraction (solid residues) and concentration (liquid residues), phenolic-rich extracts were incorporated into encapsulation matrices and processed under controlled conditions. Comprehensive characterization included encapsulation efficiency (Ef), antioxidant activity (AA), moisture content, hygroscopicity, dissolution time, bulk density, and color parameters (L*, a*, b*). Co-crystallization outperformed ionic gelation across most criteria, achieving significantly higher Ef (>150%) and superior functional properties such as lower moisture content (<0.5%), negative hygroscopicity (−6%), and faster dissolution (<60 s). These features suggested enhanced physicochemical stability and suitability for applications requiring long shelf life and rapid solubility. In contrast, extruded beads exhibited high moisture levels (94.0–95.4%) but allowed better control over morphological features. The work introduced a mild-processing approach applied innovatively to the valorization of lavender distillation waste through structurally stable phenolic delivery systems. By systematically benchmarking two distinct encapsulation strategies under equivalent formulation conditions, this study advanced current understanding in bioactive microencapsulation and offers new tools for developing functional ingredients from aromatic plant by-products. Full article

Thermosensitive hydrogels undergo reversible sol-gel phase transitions in response to changes in temperature. Owing to their excellent biocompatibility, mild reaction conditions, and controllable gelation properties, these hydrogels represent a promising class of biomaterials suitable for minimally invasive treatment systems in diverse biomedical applications. This review systematically summarizes the gelation mechanisms of thermosensitive hydrogels and optimization strategies to enhance their performance for broader application requirements. In particular, we highlight recent advances in injectable thermosensitive hydrogels as a carrier within stem cells, bioactive substances, and drug delivery for treating various tissue defects and diseases involving bone, cartilage, and other tissues. Furthermore, we propose challenges and directions for the future development of thermosensitive hydrogels. These insights provide new ideas for researchers to explore novel thermosensitive hydrogels for tissue repair and disease treatment. Full article

The development of bakeable foods supplemented with probiotics requires novel strategies to preserve the functionality of probiotic cells during thermal and gastrointestinal stress conditions. The objective of the present study was to evaluate the protective effect of multilayer double emulsions (W₁/O/W₂) stabilized with pectin-protein complexes on the viability of Limosilactobacillus reuteri (Lr) under thermal treatment (95 °C, 30 min), storage (4 °C, 28 d), and simulated gastrointestinal conditions. Emulsions were prepared with whey protein isolate (WPI) or sodium caseinate (Cas) as outer aqueous phase emulsifiers, followed by pectin coating and ionic gelation with calcium. All emulsions were stable and exhibited high encapsulation efficiency (>92%) with initial viable counts of 9 log CFU/mL. Double emulsions coated with ionically gelled pectin showed the highest protection against heat stress and gastrointestinal conditions due to the formation of a denser layer with lower permeability, regardless of the type of protein used as an emulsifier. At the end of storage, Lr viability exceeded 7 log CFU/mL in cross-linked pectin-coated microcapsules. These microcapsules maintained >6 log CFU/mL after thermal treatment, while viability remained >6.5 log CFU/mL during digestion and >5.0 log CFU/mL after consecutive heat treatment and simulated digestion. According to these results, the combination of double emulsion, multilayer formation and ionic crosslinking emerges as a promising microencapsulation technique. This approach offers enhanced protection for probiotics against extreme thermal and digestive conditions compared to previous studies that only use double emulsions. These findings support the potential application of this encapsulation method for the formulation of functional bakeable products. Full article

The limited oxidation resistance of MoSi₂ between 400 °C and 600 °C restricts its aerospace applications. This study develops a silica-sol derived core-shell MoSi₂@SiO₂ composite to enhance the low-temperature oxidation resistance of MoSi₂. Acidic, neutral, and basic silica sols were systematically applied to coat MoSi₂ powders through sol-adsorption encapsulation. Two pathways were used, one was ethanol-mediated dispersion, and the other was direct dispersion of MoSi₂ particles in silica sol. Analysis demonstrated that ethanol-mediated dispersion significantly influenced the coating efficiency and oxidation resistance, exhibited significantly decreased coating weight gains (maximum 27%) and increased oxidation weight gains (10–20%) between 340 °C and 600 °C compared with direct dispersion of MoSi₂ particles with silica sol, ascribe to the kinetic inhibition of hydroxyl group condensation and steric hindrance of MoSi₂-silica sol interface interactions of ethanol. Systematic investigation of silica sol encapsulation of MoSi₂ revealed critical correlations between colloid properties and oxidation resistance of MoSi₂@SiO₂. Basic silica sol coated MoSi₂ (BS-MoSi₂) exhibits the lowest coating efficiency (coating weight gain of 7.74 ± 0.06%) as well as lowest oxidation weight gain (18.45%) between 340 °C and 600 °C compared with those of acid and neutral silica sol coated MoSi₂ (AS-MoSi₂ and NS-MoSi₂), arises from optimal gelation kinetics, enhanced surface coverage via reduced agglomeration, and suppressed premature nucleation through controlled charge interactions under alkaline conditions. Full article

Smectite clay minerals are known to readily form thixotropic physical gels in aqueous media, even at low volume fractions. Although the rheological properties of these gels are closely related to the microstructure of the network, the influence of the clay’s physicochemical characteristics remains insufficiently understood. In this study, we systematically investigated the relationships between particle size, cation exchange capacity, and zeta potential, and the rheological behavior of aqueous dispersions of four synthetic smectites. After thorough deionization, dispersions were prepared at controlled NaCl concentrations. We found that the zeta potential strongly correlates with the fineness of the network structure and governs macroscopic rheological responses such as viscosity, yield stress, and gelation behavior. Even under identical conditions, gel transparency and structural coarseness varied significantly among clay types. Furthermore, the storage modulus was influenced not only by network density but also by the intrinsic stiffness of the clay branches. These findings demonstrate that zeta potential serves as a unified indicator of structure and function in smectite dispersions and offer useful insights for gel design in colloidal and soft matter systems. Full article

FmocFF is a highly versatile gelator whose π–π-stacking fluorenyl group and hydrogen-bonded peptide backbone permit gelation in a wide spectrum of solvents, providing a rich scaffold for crystal engineering. This study explores the synergistic effects of FmocFF organogels and solvent selection on controlling the polymorphic outcomes of nilutamide, a nonsteroidal antiandrogen drug with complex polymorphism. By systematically varying process parameters such as solvent type and concentration, we demonstrate remarkable control over crystal nucleation and growth pathways. Most significantly, we report the first ambient-temperature isolation of pure nilutamide Form II through acetonitrile-based FmocFF organogel, highlighting the unique interplay between solvent properties and gel fiber networks. Thermal analysis reveals that the organogel not only selectively templates Form II but also affects its thermal pathway. We also present compelling evidence for a new polymorph exhibiting second-harmonic generation (SHG) activity. This would represent the first non-centrosymmetric nilutamide form discovered, suggesting the gel matrix induces symmetry breaking during crystallization. We also characterize a previously unreported nilutamide–chloroform solvate through multiple analytical techniques including PXRD, DSC, FTIR, SXRD, and SHG microscopy. Our findings demonstrate that solvent-specific molecular recognition within gel matrices enables access to entirely new regions of polymorphic space, establishing gel-mediated crystallization as a broadly applicable platform technology for pharmaceutical solid form discovery under mild conditions. Full article

This study aimed to design dual-responsive chitosan–polylactic acid nanosystems (PLA@CS NPs) for controlled and targeted ledipasvir (LED) delivery to HepG2 liver cancer cells, thereby reducing the systemic toxicity and improving the therapeutic selectivity. Two formulations were developed utilizing ionotropic gelation and w/o/w emulsion techniques: LED@CS NPs with a size of 143 nm, a zeta potential of +43.5 mV, and a loading capacity of 44.1%, and LED-PLA@CS NPs measuring 394 nm, with a zeta potential of +33.3 mV and a loading capacity of 89.3%, with the latter demonstrating significant drug payload capacity. Since most drugs work through interaction with DNA, the in vitro affinity of DNA to LED and its encapsulated forms was assessed using stopped-flow and other approaches. They bind through multi-modal electrostatic and intercalative modes via two reversible processes: a fast complexation followed by a slow isomerization. The overall binding activation parameters for LED (cordination affinity, K_a = 128.4 M⁻¹, K_d = 7.8 × 10⁻³ M, ΔG = −12.02 kJ mol⁻¹), LED@CS NPs (K_a = 2131 M⁻¹, K_d = 0.47 × 10⁻³ M, ΔG = −18.98 kJ mol⁻¹) and LED-PLA@CS NPs (K_a = 22026 M⁻¹, K_d = 0.045 × 10⁻³ M, ΔG = −24.79 kJ mol⁻¹) were obtained with a reactivity ratio of 1/16/170 (LED/LED@CS NPs/LED-PLA@CS NPs). This indicates that encapsulation enhanced the interaction between the DNA and the LED-loaded nanoparticle systems, without changing the mechanism, and formed thermodynamically stable complexes. The drug release kinetics were assessed under tumor-mimetic conditions (pH 5.5, 10 mM GSH) and physiological settings (pH 7.4, 2 μM GSH). The LED@CS NPs and LED-PLA@CS NPs exhibited drug release rates of 88.0% and 73%, respectively, under dual stimuli over 50 h, exceeding the release rates observed under physiological conditions, which were 58% and 54%, thereby indicating that the LED@CS NPs and LED-PLA@CS NPs systems specifically target malignant tissue. Release regulated by Fickian diffusion facilitates tumor-specific payload delivery. Although encapsulation did not enhance the immediate cytotoxicity compared to free LED, as demonstrated by an in vitro cytotoxicity in HepG2 cancer cell lines, it significantly enhanced the therapeutic index (2.1-fold for LED-PLA@CS NPs) by protecting non-cancerous cells. Additionally, the nanoparticles demonstrated broad-spectrum antibacterial effects, suggesting efficacy in the prevention of chemotherapy-related infections. The dual-responsive LED-PLA@CS NPs allowed controlled tumor-targeted LED delivery with better selectivity and lower off-target toxicity, making LED-PLA@CS NPs interesting candidates for repurposing HCV treatments into safer cancer nanomedicines. Furthermore, this thorough analysis offers useful reference information for comprehending the interaction between drugs and DNA. Full article

In the field of enhanced oil recovery (EOR), particularly for water control in high-temperature reservoirs, there is a critical need for effective in-depth water shutoff and conformance control technologies. Polymer-based in situ-cross-linked gels are extensively employed for enhanced oil recovery (EOR), yet their short gelation time under high-temperature reservoir conditions (e.g., >120 °C) limits effective in-depth water shutoff and conformance control. To address this, we developed a hydrogel system via the in situ cross-linking of polyacrylamide (PAM) with phenolic resin (PR), reinforced by silica sol (SS) nanoparticles. We employed a variety of research methods, including bottle tests, viscosity and rheology measurements, scanning electron microscopy (SEM) scanning, density functional theory (DFT) calculations, differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) measurements, quartz crystal microbalance with dissipation (QCM-D) measurement, contact angle (CA) measurement, injectivity and temporary plugging performance evaluations, etc. The composite gel exhibits an exceptional gelation period of 72 h at 130 °C, surpassing conventional systems by more than 4.5 times in terms of duration. The gelation rate remains almost unchanged with the introduction of SS, due to the highly pre-dispersed silica nanoparticles that provide exceptional colloidal stability and the system’s pH changing slightly throughout the gelation process. DFT and SEM results reveal that synergistic interactions between organic (PAM-PR networks) and inorganic (SS) components create a stacked hybrid network, enhancing both mechanical strength and thermal stability. A core flooding experiment demonstrates that the gel system achieves 92.4% plugging efficiency. The tailored nanocomposite allows for the precise management of gelation kinetics and microstructure formation, effectively addressing water control and enhancing the plugging effect in high-temperature reservoirs. These findings advance the mechanistic understanding of organic–inorganic hybrid gel systems and provide a framework for developing next-generation EOR technologies under extreme reservoir conditions. Full article

Fractured vuggy reservoirs exhibit intricate fracture networks, where large fractures impose significant shielding effects on smaller ones, posing formidable challenges for efficient exploitation. A systematic evaluation of foaming volume, drainage half-life, decay behavior, and viscosity under varying temperatures and salinities was conducted for conventional foam, polymer-enhanced foam, and gel foam. The results yield the following conclusions: Compared to conventional foam, polymer-enhanced foam exhibits markedly improved stability. In contrast, gel foam, cross-linked with chemical agents, maintains stability for over one week at elevated temperatures, albeit at the expense of reduced foaming capacity. The three-dimensional network structure formed post-gelation enables gel foam to retain a thicker liquid film, exhibiting exceptional foam stability. As salinity increases, the base liquid viscosity of conventional foam remains largely unaffected, whereas polymer foam shows marked viscosity reduction. Gel foam displays a non-monotonic viscosity response—initially increasing due to ionic cross-linking and subsequently declining from excessive charge screening. All three systems exhibit significant viscosity decreases under high-temperature conditions. Visualized plate fracture model experiments revealed distinct flow patterns and mobility control performance; narrow fractures exacerbate bubble coalescence under shear stress, leading to enlarged bubble sizes and diminished plugging efficiency. Among the three systems, gel foam exhibited superior mobility control characteristics, with uniform bubble size distribution and enhanced stability. Integrating the findings from the foam mobility control experiments in parallel fracture systems with the diversion outcomes of mobility control and flooding, distinct performance trends emerge. It can be seen that the stronger the foam stability, the stronger the mobility control ability, and the easier it is to start the shielding effect. Combined with the stability of different foam systems, understanding the mobility control ability of a foam system is the key to increasing the sweep coefficient of a complex fracture network and improve oil-washing efficiency. Full article

Drought and metal pollution severely impact plant growth. Root-associated extremophilic fungi can improve plant performance, and their encapsulation improves protection and effectiveness. This study optimized the encapsulation conditions for an extremophilic fungus with plant growth-promoting traits using alginate–chitosan capsules. An endophytic fungus was isolated from the roots of Neltuma chilensis from the Atacama Desert and identified via internal transcribed spacer (ITS) sequencing. Its plant growth-promoting traits, including exopolysaccharide, ammonium, siderophore, and indole acetic acid production and phosphorus solubilization, were evaluated. Freeze-dried Penicillium nalgiovense was encapsulated using jet-breaking extrusion, and capsule morphology and fungal survival were assessed via scanning electron microscope (SEM), confocal laser scanning microscopy (CLSM), and viability tests. Using Taguchi’s design, optimal conditions for sphericity (0.914 ± 0.002) and mean size (3.232 ± 0.087 mm) were achieved with 1% chitosan, a 5 cm distance to the gelation bath, and a 40 Hz vibration frequency. CLSM analysis confirmed the presence of the chitosan outer layer, revealing the capsule’s coating material encapsulating the fungus P. nalgiovense. The encapsulated fungus remained viable across disinfection times, demonstrating effective protection and gradual release. These findings emphasize the need for precise parameter control in fungal encapsulation, providing a basis for developing robust bioinoculants to support plant resilience in extreme environments. Full article

Drought is a major environmental constraint that negatively affects crop germination, seedling establishment, and overall yield. This study presents a sustainable approach to improving wheat productivity under water-deficit conditions through the application of a gellan gum-based hydrogel enriched with the growth stimulant. The hydrogel was synthesized by inducing ionic gelation of gellan gum using potassium chloride and ammonium sulfate, forming a robust, cross-linked polymer network. Wheat seeds were coated with one to eight layers of the hydrogel using a sequential dipping and drying process. Optimal seedling performance was achieved with a two-layer coating, balancing sufficient water retention with adequate gas exchange. FTIR spectroscopy and pH analysis confirmed ionic interactions between Kaz-6 and the carboxyl groups of gellan, supporting its stable incorporation within the polymer matrix. Mechanical characterization showed that ammonium sulfate significantly enhanced gel strength and cross-linking density compared to potassium chloride. Laboratory germination assays and greenhouse trials demonstrated that seeds coated with gellan hydrogel containing Kaz-6 showed enhanced germination rates, greater biomass accumulation, and significantly improved drought tolerance—surviving up to 10 days longer than controls under water-limited conditions. These findings highlight the potential of biopolymer-based hydrogels as eco-friendly seed coating materials that can improve crop resilience and productivity in arid environments. The proposed formulation aligns with sustainable agriculture goals and represents a promising direction for future field-scale applications in climate-adaptive farming systems. Full article

Probiotics offer numerous health benefits; however, preserving their viability during processing and storage remains a major challenge. This study investigates the electrospinning of gelatin/dextran (GE/DEX) water-in-water (W/W) emulsions for Lactobacillus plantarum encapsulation. By varying dextran concentrations, the ways in which phase behavior, viscosity, and conductivity influence fiber formation and morphology were analyzed. Scanning and transmission electron microscopy confirmed core–shell nanofibers, while FT-IR revealed electrostatic interactions rather than chemical reactions between GE and DEX. Encapsulated probiotics exhibited enhanced viability under thermal stress (65 and 72 °C), storage (25 and 4 °C), and simulated gastrointestinal conditions, maintaining high viability (>8 log CFU/g) compared with free cells. Notably, gelatin-rich shell phases provided stronger protection, likely due to gelation properties restricting bacterial mobility. These findings demonstrate that electrospinning of W/W emulsions is an effective strategy to improve probiotic stability, offering potential applications in functional foods. Full article

This study aimed to provide systematic insight into the relationship between spray conditions and the physicochemical and gelation properties of egg white protein (EWP). Specifically, the effects of two key factors, the inlet temperature and flow rate, on the physicochemical and structural properties of EWP were determined. The analysis revealed that as the spray-drying temperature increased, more hydrophobic groups in EWP were exposed and prone to aggregate. Furthermore, the physicochemical and rheological properties and microstructure of egg white protein gel (EWPG) were determined. The results indicate that under a relatively high inlet temperature and a low flow rate, the hardness, springing, and water-holding capacity of the produced gel were improved. Excessively high temperatures were detrimental to pre-aggregate formation and the development of a homogeneous network. The rheological results demonstrate that the EWPG exhibited a weak frequency dependence and elastic-dominant gel characteristics. Further analysis indicated that the inlet temperature significantly influenced the nonlinear response of the EWPG, with the strongest higher-order viscous nonlinear properties observed at 140 °C. The microstructure suggested that at 140 °C, the EWPG achieved a minimum porosity of 50.07% and a maximum fractal dimension (D_f) of 2.745, where a uniform network structure was generated. This study demonstrated that relatively high temperatures and low flow rates in the spray-drying process were advantageous for producing egg white protein gel with desirable characteristics, which has potential for the actual application of egg-based food products. Full article

Conductive hydrogels, particularly those incorporating poly(3,4-ethylenedioxythiophene):polystyrene sulfonate (PEDOT:PSS), have revolutionized wearable health monitoring by merging tissue-like softness with robust electronic functionality. This review systematically explores design strategies for PEDOT:PSS-based hydrogels, focusing on advanced gelation methods, including polymer crosslinking, ionic interactions, and light-induced polymerization, to engineer hierarchical networks that balance conductivity and mechanical adaptability. Cutting-edge fabrication techniques such as electrochemical patterning, additive manufacturing, and laser-assisted processing further enable precise microstructural control, enhancing interfacial compatibility with biological systems. The applications of these hydrogels in wearable sensors are highlighted through their capabilities in real-time mechanical deformation tracking, dynamic tissue microenvironment analysis, and high-resolution electrophysiological signal acquisition. Environmental stability and long-term durability are critical for ensuring reliable operation under physiological conditions and mitigating performance degradation caused by fatigue, oxidation, or biofouling. By addressing critical challenges in environmental stability and long-term durability, PEDOT:PSS hydrogels demonstrate transformative potential for personalized healthcare, where their unique combination of softness, biocompatibility, and tunable electro-mechanical properties enables seamless integration with human tissues for continuous, patient-specific physiological monitoring. These systems offer scalable solutions for multi-modal diagnostics, empowering tailored therapeutic interventions and chronic disease management. The review concludes with insights into future directions, emphasizing the integration of intelligent responsiveness and energy autonomy to advance next-generation bioelectronic interfaces. Full article

Background: Spinal cord injury (SCI) is a devastating neurological condition with limited therapeutic options. Current clinical interventions predominantly rely on prolonged or high-dose pharmacological regimens, often causing systemic toxicity and adverse events. Although black phosphorus nanosheets (BPNSs) exhibit remarkable reactive oxygen species (ROS)-scavenging capacity to mitigate oxidative damage, their rapid degradation severely compromises their therapeutic efficacy. Methods: This study presents a thermosensitive hydrogel with rapid gelation properties by incorporating different proportions and concentrations of sodium alginate (SA) into a chitosan/β-glycerophosphate (CS/β-GP) hydrogel and loading it with BPNS for the treatment of SCI in rats. In vitro, the physical properties of the composite were characterized and the cytotoxicity and ROS scavenging abilities were assessed using PC12 cells; in vivo, behavioral tests, histopathological analysis, transcriptomics, immunohistochemistry, and Western blotting were performed to explore the therapeutic effects and mechanisms. Results: The results demonstrate that this hydrogel effectively slows BPNS degradation, exhibits a high ROS scavenging capacity, reduces lipid peroxidation, and thereby inhibits ferroptosis and apoptosis, offering neuroprotective effects and promoting motor function recovery. Conclusions: Our findings establish the CS/β-GP/SA-BPNS hydrogel as a multifunctional therapeutic platform for SCI, synergizing sustained drug release with ROS–ferroptosis–apoptosis axis modulation to achieve neuroprotection and functional restoration. This strategy provides a translatable paradigm for combining nanotechnology and biomaterial engineering in neural repair. Full article