Search Results (299)

Laurus nobilis L. (Lauraceae), widely recognized as bay laurel, has long held prominence in traditional medicine across diverse cultures and has attracted growing attention within contemporary pharmacological research. This review endeavors to synthesize and critically evaluate evidence from in vitro, in vivo, and clinical studies to elucidate the therapeutic potential of this species, an aromatic evergreen shrub native to the Mediterranean region. Its leaves and essential oil have long been utilized in culinary and traditional medicine, and recent scientific studies have revealed a wide range of pharmacological properties. A comprehensive literature search was conducted using the keyword “Laurus nobilis L.” across Scopus, PubMed, and Google Scholar databases. The search included English-language resources published up to 31 January 2025, focusing on in vitro, in vivo, and human studies. Exclusion criteria encompassed letters, conference proceedings, and articles related to agriculture, genetics, nursing, environmental and veterinary sciences, multidisciplinary studies, and non-medical or pharmaceutical themes. The findings indicate that L. nobilis exhibits diverse pharmacological activities, including wound-healing, dental plaque-reduction, hepatoprotective and gastroprotective effects, antidiabetic activity, antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties, antimicrobial and antiparasitic effects, neuroprotective potential, antigenotoxic and anti-hypersensitivity actions, and renal protection. This review manuscript seeks to further illuminate the pharmacological potential of Laurus nobilis while articulating the biophysical underpinnings and mechanistic coherence through which its bioactive constituents manifest their therapeutic effects. In conclusion, L. nobilis demonstrates significant promise as a natural, effective, and safe therapeutic candidate for various health conditions. Nonetheless, further clinical research is warranted to substantiate its efficacy and safety, thereby enabling its integration into evidence-based medical practice. Full article

Gliricidia sepium (G. sepium) is a Fabaceae tree native to Mexico and Central America with ethnobotanical relevance in tropical regions. Traditionally, different parts have been used to treat skin disorders, wounds, fever, infections, inflammation, and pain-related conditions. This narrative review summarizes evidence on the ethnobotanical uses, phytochemical profile, biological activities, antinociceptive potential, and safety of G. sepium, with an emphasis on inflammation and pain. The literature search used G. sepium as the search term combined with keywords related to ethnobotanical uses, traditional medicine, phytochemistry, secondary metabolites, pharmacological activity, toxicity, and safety. Boolean operators, truncation, and searching were applied without publication year restrictions. Articles published in English and Spanish were considered, while superficial or irrelevant mentions were excluded. The literature indicates that G. sepium contains diverse constituents, including volatile aromatic compounds, coumarins, flavonoids, phenolic acids, fatty acid derivatives, triterpenoids, and saponins. In vitro and preclinical in vivo studies suggest antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, wound-healing, gastroprotective, and tissue-protective effects. However, evidence of antinociceptive activity remains lacking, and pain-related relevance is mainly inferred from mechanisms involving inflammation, oxidative stress, and tissue repair. Thus, G. sepium represents a potential source of bioactive metabolites, although its therapeutic potential requires validation through standardized preparations, validated models, mechanistic studies, and toxicological assessment. Full article

(1) Background: Ulcerative colitis (UC) is a chronic inflammatory bowel disease associated with gut microbiota dysbiosis and metabolic perturbations. Although Liubao tea (LBT) has gastroprotective benefits, the precise mechanisms by which LBT extract (LBTE) alleviates UC by orchestrating microbial and metabolic homeostasis remain poorly understood. (2) Methods: A DSS-induced UC mouse model was used to evaluate LBTE efficacy. Serum pharmacochemistry, untargeted metabolomics, 16S rRNA sequencing, and targeted SCFA metabolomics were integrated to characterize absorbable active constituents, metabolic shifts, and gut microbiota landscapes. SCFA- and arachidonic acid metabolism-related targets were validated by RT-qPCR and Western blotting. PGF models and FMT were used to assess the causal role of gut microbiota in LBTE-mediated efficacy. (3) Results: LBTE preserved colon length and mucosal integrity while reducing IL-6, TNF-α, IL-1β, and oxidative stress. It enriched SCFA-producing genera and increased colonic butyric and valeric acids, activating GPR41/GPR109A signaling, upregulating ZO-1 and occludin, and strengthening the intestinal barrier. LBTE also downregulated PTGS2 and ALOX5, restored PTGS1 and CYP3A11, and inhibited NF-κB signaling. These effects were weakened in PGF mice but reproduced by FMT from LBTE-treated donors, confirming microbiota-dependent protection. (4) Conclusions: LBTE may serve as a complementary strategy for UC prevention and management. Full article

The corm of Colocasia esculenta (L.) Scott is widely used for food and treating gastric problems. However, its gastroprotective activity remains unexplored. This article aims to investigate the gastroprotective activity of the ethanol extract of C. esculenta corm (EECE) in ethanol-induced gastric ulcer in rats. EECE was analyzed for nutritional composition (proximate and vitamin C) and phytochemical composition (total phenol content, total flavonoid content, and quercetin levels), followed by metabolite profiling and an in vivo study. Male Wistar rats were randomly assigned to seven groups: (1) normal control, (2) negative control, (3) sucralfate group, (4) quercetin group, and three EECE groups at doses of (5) 200 mg/kg BW, (6) 400 mg/kg BW, and (7) 800 mg/kg BW. Following a two-week treatment period, all groups except the normal group were exposed to 70% ethanol. Post-mortem analysis included macroscopic and histopathological examination of gastric tissue, as well as Western blot analysis to investigate NF-κB p65 expression. EECE contains high moisture, ash, fat, and protein, and low carbohydrate levels, vitamin C at 417.73 mg/100 g, total phenol content of 833.43 mg GAE/100 g, total flavonoid content of 1178.82 mg QE/100 g, and quercetin at 261.76 mg/100 g. UHPLC–HRMS/MS analysis revealed amino sugars, conjugated amino acids, lipids, phenolics, and minor cyanogenic glycosides. EECE significantly reduced the percentage of ulcer area in an ethanol-induced gastric ulcer model (p < 0.05). It increased mucosal thickness, reduced polymorphonuclear cell infiltration, and decreased NF-κB p65 expression. The gastroprotective effects of EECE are mediated by enhancing gastric mucosal defense and inhibiting NF-κB p65 expression, thus highlighting its potential as a promising gastroprotective adjunct therapy. Full article

The treatment of gastric ulcers based on antisecretory drugs is often associated with side effects and high recurrence rates, reinforcing the need for new therapeutic alternatives. Medicinal chemistry guided by natural prototypes represents a productive strategy in this context. The antiulcer potential of 2-phenylquinoline (2-PQ), an alkaloid from Conchocarpus longifolius (A.St.-Hil.) Kallunki & Pirani (syn. Galipea longiflora Krause), has been previously reported by our research group. In the present work, four 2-PQ derivatives were synthesized—2,4-diphenylquinoline (1), 2-(4-methoxyphenyl) quinoline (2), 2-phenylquinolin-4-ol (3), and 4-methoxy-2-phenylquinoline (4)—and evaluated for gastroprotective activity in the HCl/ethanol-induced gastric ulcer model in mice. The quinoline derivatives were prepared mainly by trifluoroacetic acid-catalyzed condensations of aminated benzaldehyde or benzophenone precursors with the corresponding ketones under reflux at 100 °C, affording yields of 68–94%. Compound 3 was synthesized via a two-step sequence involving the acylation of 2-aminobenzophenone followed by base-induced cyclization, providing an 85% yield. Compound 4 was obtained by O-methylation of compound 3 using iodomethane (MeI) and potassium carbonate (K₂CO₃) in dimethylformamide (DMF), affording a 95% yield. So, this study provides the first comparative analysis linking structural modifications to gastroprotective activity in synthetic quinoline derivatives inspired by 2-phenylquinoline, a natural alkaloid previously shown to exert gastroprotective effects. Carbenoxolone (200 mg/kg, p.o., positive control) inhibited gastric lesion formation by 94.1%. The synthetic quinoline derivatives also showed significant gastroprotective activity after oral administration (30 mg/kg), reducing ulcer area by 72.4% (compound 1), 76.1% (compound 2), 49.1% (compound 3), and 66.1% (compound 4). Compounds 2, 3, and 4 further retained efficacy following intraperitoneal administration (3 mg/kg), whereas compound 1 was inactivated by this route. Overall, compound 4 exhibited the greatest efficacy, significantly reducing the gastric lesion area, decreasing lipid hydroperoxide (LOOH) and tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-α) levels, and increasing glutathione (GSH) content in ulcerated gastric tissue. These findings suggest that its gastroprotective effects are mediated by antioxidant and anti-inflammatory mechanisms, identifying compound 4 as the most promising candidate for the prevention and treatment of peptic ulcers. Its promising pharmacological profile warrants further investigation to elucidate its molecular mechanisms of action, assess its safety and efficacy in additional preclinical studies, and explore its potential for future therapeutic development. Full article

Ethanol (EtOH)-induced gastric ulcer (GU) is a common model used to investigate mechanisms of mucosal injury and repair. Omeprazole (OMP) is a conventional anti-ulcer drug that effectively suppresses gastric acid secretion, but its efficacy may be enhanced by combining it with bioactive phytochemicals derived from a Glycyrrhiza glabra L. (licorice; LIQ) extract that possess potent antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties. The aim of the present study was to evaluate the gastroprotective effects of OMP, LIQ extract, and their combined treatment against EtOH-induced GU in rats, focusing on modulation of TLR4/NF-κB/NLRP3 signaling and PI3K/AKT/mTOR gene expression. The ethanolic extract of LIQ was chemically characterized by LC-ESI-QTOF-MS/MS, and molecular docking was performed to evaluate the potential binding interactions of its major constituents with H⁺/K⁺-ATPase and COX-2. Thirty male Wistar rats were randomly allocated into control, ulcer (ULC), OMP-treated, LIQ-treated, and combined treatment groups. GU was induced by absolute EtOH. Subsequently, gastric pH, stomach coefficient, oxidative stress, inflammatory mediators, and PI3K, AKT, and mTOR gene expression were assessed. Histopathological and immunohistochemical analyses of mucosal architecture and the expression of TNF-α, caspase-3, and PCNA were performed. Coadministration of OMP and LIQ demonstrated the greatest gastroprotective activity, marked by a significant increase in gastric pH, restoration of antioxidant status, and substantial reduction in ROS, TLR4, NF-κB, and NLRP3 levels. The combined therapy significantly upregulated the expression of PI3K, AKT, and mTOR genes in comparison to ULC. Histopathological and immunohistochemical findings further demonstrated preservation of gastric mucosal integrity, reduced inflammatory cell infiltration, and decreased TNF-α, caspase-3, and PCNA immunoreactivity, indicating attenuation of mucosal injury. In conclusion, LIQ extract enhanced the gastroprotective effect of OMP against EtOH-induced GU, supporting its potential as an adjunct to OMP. Further studies are warranted to confirm the underlying molecular mechanisms. Full article

Background: Migrant agricultural workers in Italy often experience social and health vulnerabilities, including unstable housing and limited access to primary care. In Southern Italy, many live in informal settlements and seek care through outreach services. This study describes patterns of pharmacological treatment in this population and examines how they relate to the clinical conditions managed in mobile clinics. Methods: We analyzed routinely collected data from 2928 unique patients (8547 clinical encounters; 8965 treatment occurrences) managed by Doctors with Africa CUAMM mobile clinics in 12 informal settlements in Apulia, Italy, between 2017 and 2026. Diagnoses were grouped into clinical categories, and pharmacological treatments were classified by therapeutic class. We conducted a descriptive analysis of the distribution of diagnostic categories and associated treatments. Results: The population was predominantly male (96.5%), young (81% <45 years), and largely excluded from regular primary care (93.5% without a General Practitioner). Musculoskeletal disorders and fatigue were the leading diagnostic category (34.0%), followed by gastrointestinal (13.5%) and respiratory conditions (13.0%). Non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) and analgesics were the most frequently recorded treatments (32.6% of treatment occurrences). Among musculoskeletal presentations, NSAIDs were used in 76% of cases. Gastroprotective agents were documented in 52% of encounters with gastrointestinal symptoms. Among cardiovascular presentations, 87.7% of treatment occurrences involved chronic management with antihypertensives or beta-blockers. Conclusions: In this outreach setting, medication use provides a descriptive picture of common health problems and treatment responses among migrant agricultural workers living in informal settlements. The prominent use of symptomatic pharmacological relief, particularly NSAIDs in musculoskeletal conditions, suggests that care is often focused on managing pain and acute complaints in a population facing barriers to continuous primary care. These findings support the need for stronger inclusion of migrant workers in the National Health Service and for policies that address underlying social and structural determinants of health. Full article

Sideritis species (Lamiaceae), the aromatic mountain teas of the Mediterranean and Balkans, accumulate a phytochemically rich array of bioactive compounds—phenylethanoid glycosides (notably verbascoside), flavonoid aglycones and glycosides, phenolic acids, and terpenoids—whose pharmacological relevance is increasingly defined at the molecular level. This review synthesizes current evidence on the molecular mechanisms through which these constituents act in human health and disease, integrating in vitro, in vivo, in silico, and clinical data. Anti-inflammatory activity is attributed to modulation of the NF-κB and NLRP3 inflammasome pathways; direct verbascoside binding to both targets has been demonstrated in vitro by microscale thermophoresis (nanomolar-to-micromolar Kd), with suppression of TNF-α and IL-1β observed in cell-based and animal models. Neuroprotective effects are proposed to operate through amyloid-β clearance via ADAM10 upregulation and enhanced microglial phagocytosis in transgenic mouse models, together with in vitro triple monoamine (serotonin, noradrenaline, dopamine) reuptake inhibition, and are supported at the functional level by small randomized clinical trials reporting cognitive and anxiolytic benefits. Antioxidant and cytoprotective actions reflect radical scavenging, metal chelation, and restoration of SOD/CAT/GSH with attenuation of lipid peroxidation, underpinning documented hepatoprotective and gastroprotective outcomes. Preliminary cardiometabolic findings from small clinical trials include cholesterol modulation and sex-dependent effects on insulin sensitivity that remain to be confirmed in larger, adequately powered cohorts. We further evaluate structure–activity relationships, species- and tissue-level chemical variability, and green extraction strategies relevant to standardized bioactivity-preserving preparations. Critical gaps—in vivo validation of antiproliferative effects documented only in cell-based and in silico studies so far, systematic toxicological assessment, and bioavailability characterization—are identified to guide translation. Collectively, Sideritis-derived phytochemicals, exemplified by S. scardica, represent a mechanistically coherent group of plant bioactives with defined molecular targets in inflammatory, neurodegenerative, and metabolic disorders. Full article

Excessive ethanol consumption is a cause of gastric ulceration. This study aimed to identify the gastroprotective action of rufigallol, an anthraquinone, against ethanol-induced gastric ulcers and assess its antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties. Healthy rats were grouped into five groups (n = 8); the control group received sterile saline orally; the ethanol group received ethanol (5 mL/kg) to generate gastric ulcers on the last day of the experiment; the pretreated rufigallol group was administered 10 or 20 mg/kg rufigallol orally for a week before gastric ulcer initiation; and the drug control group received omeprazole (20 mg/kg) for a week with ethanol treatment. The results showed that oral rugalallol significantly reduced gastric ulcers, as indicated by decreased gastric juice volume and increased preventive percentage, gastric pH value, and pepsin activity. Histopathology confirmed a reduction in the gastric ulcer index following rufigallol treatment. Rufigallol pre-treatment significantly increased antioxidant levels (CAT, SOD, and GSH) and decreased MDA levels compared to the ethanol group. Furthermore, rufigallol treatment decreased MPO, pro-inflammatory cytokines, and mediator levels. It also reduced COX-2, IFN-γ, and NLRP3 expression and restored NO and PGE2 levels. In vitro experiments using HT-29 and HaCaT cell lines confirmed that rufigallol reduced cytokine production and exhibited anti-inflammatory activity in response to lipopolysaccharide stimulation. These results suggested that rufigallol administration may provide gastroprotective benefits against ethanol-induced gastric ulcers, potentially by reducing oxidative stress and gastric inflammation. Full article

Background/Objectives: Hydrochloric acid (HCl)/ethanol-induced gastric mucosal injury is closely associated with oxidative stress and inflammatory responses. Probiotics are promising therapeutic agents for gastrointestinal disorders. Therefore, this study evaluated the preventive effects of Cheonggukjang-derived Bacillus strains on HCl/ethanol-induced gastric mucosal injury in a rat model (n = 5 per group), with emphasis on inflammatory mechanisms. Methods: Eight-week-old male Sprague–Dawley rats were orally administered Bacillus amyloliquefaciens C393 1.0 × 10⁹ CFU (B393), Bacillus subtilis C439 1.0 × 10⁹ CFU (B439), or B. subtilis C512 1.0 × 10⁹ CFU (C512). Gastric injury was induced by oral administration of HCl/ethanol (150 mM HCl in 60% ethanol). Results: HCl/ethanol exposure significantly increased symptom scores, gastric mucosal lesion area, and histopathological damage. Pretreatment with B393 and B439 significantly attenuated these alterations. Moreover, HCl/ethanol administration increased gastric secretion volume and decreased gastric pH, both of which were significantly normalized by B393 and B439. Serum levels of pro-inflammatory cytokines, including tumor necrosis factor-α and interleukin-6, were significantly elevated following HCl/ethanol exposure but were markedly reduced by B393 and B439. Immunohistochemical analysis demonstrated that nuclear factor-kappa B activation in gastric tissues was significantly suppressed in these groups. Conclusions: These findings indicate that Cheonggukjang-derived Bacillus strains exert strain-specific gastroprotective effects possibly by suppressing NF-κB-mediated inflammatory signaling. Full article

Peptic ulcer is a multifactorial and debilitating gastrointestinal disorder affecting about 10 million people worldwide. The effectiveness of many anti-ulcer drugs is often limited by adverse effects, thereby making the need for safer, natural alternatives necessary. In this study, experimental rats were orally gavaged for 14 days with 1.25, 2.5, or 5.5 mg/kg body weight of lyophilized goat weed (Ageratum conyzoides) juice extract (ACJE). Gastric ulceration was induced in fasted animals by oral administration of ethanol (96%, 5 mL/kg). Animals were subsequently euthanized to evaluate the ulcer index, stomach histology, and biochemical markers of toxicity and oxidative stress. Untreated, induced rats had significantly (p < 0.001) higher ulcer scores (9-fold) and gastric juice secretion (1.5-fold), as well as lower gastric juice pH (1.5-fold). These effects were markedly reversed by ACJE pretreatment. Rats administered 2.5 mg/kg ACJE demonstrated similar protective benefits to those of ranitidine, including significant reductions in ulcer severity, gastric juice volume, and acidity. Furthermore, ulcer-associated dyslipidemia and changes in LDL and HDL cholesterol levels were mitigated in ACJE-pretreated animals. The gastroprotective effect of ACJE was validated by histological findings and the restoration of oxidative stress in rats. In silico analysis revealed that ACJE phytochemicals bind strongly to urease and pepsin, with higher docking scores compared to standard drugs. Overall, ACJE shows promising gastroprotective potential, necessitating more mechanistic research. Full article

Pathogenesis-related (PR) proteins are crucial for plant defense against pathogen infection. However, the specific role of thaumatin-like proteins (TLPs), which comprise the PR-5 family, in plant immune responses has not been thoroughly investigated. Filipendula ulmaria is a medicinal plant with valuable pharmacological properties, including antimicrobial, anti-inflammatory, gastroprotective, immunomodulatory, and anticancer activities. The structure of the TLP family and its role in the immune system of meadowsweet have not been studied so far. The goal of this study was to analyze in detail the TLP gene family in meadowsweet and explore its response to fungal infection. In the meadowsweet genome, we identified 27 putative TLP genes, examined their structure and location on chromosomes, analyzed cis-regulatory elements in the promoter regions, predicted the structure and physicochemical characteristics of the encoded proteins, and performed a phylogenetic analysis. We also studied the differential expression of TLP genes under Bipolaris sorokiniana infection. Of six differentially expressed genes, three genes were up-regulated 48 h post-infection, suggesting their involvement in defense response to the fungus. The results obtained shed light on the role of the TLP gene family in the immune system of F. ulmaria and form the foundation for the creation of disease-resistant crops in agriculture and the development of bio-based antimicrobials in medicine. Full article

Background/Objectives: Tordylium trachycarpum Boiss. (Apiaceae) is traditionally used in Kurdish ethnomedicine for the management of gastrointestinal disorders; however, its pharmacological efficacy and safety profile remain insufficiently investigated. This study evaluated, for the first time, the gastroprotective activity and associated antioxidant, inflammatory, and apoptotic responses of the methanolic extract of T. trachycarpum using an ethanol-induced gastric ulcer model in Sprague–Dawley rats. Methods: Preliminary phytochemical screening revealed the presence of phenolics, flavonoids, terpenoids, tannins, coumarins, and glycosides. Acute oral toxicity testing demonstrated no signs of toxicity at doses up to 5 g/kg. Gastric ulceration was induced by absolute ethanol, and animals were pretreated with the extract (250 and 500 mg/kg) or omeprazole (20 mg/kg). Results: The extract significantly decreased the gastric lesion area from 258.50 ± 6.38 mm² in the ulcer control group to 143.70 ± 0.76 mm² and 115.50 ± 0.76 mm², corresponding to ulcer inhibition rates of 44.41% and 55.31%. Additionally, the extract increased mucus production, maintained mucosal structure, and raised stomach pH. Biochemical analysis showed a significant increase in antioxidant enzymes [superoxide dismutase (SOD) and catalase (CAT)] and a reduction in malondialdehyde (MDA) levels, indicating attenuation of oxidative stress. In addition, the extract modulated pro-inflammatory cytokines (TNF-α, IL-1β, IL-6, and IL-10). Blood-based ELISA analysis demonstrated increased expression of heat shock protein 70 (HSP70) and reduced Bax levels, suggesting anti-apoptotic activity. Conclusions: These findings indicate that T. trachycarpum exerts significant gastroprotective activity through antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and anti-apoptotic mechanisms, supporting its traditional use and highlighting its potential as a natural therapeutic candidate for the management of gastric ulcers. Full article

Caryocar coriaceum Wittm. (Caryocaraceae) is a native Brazilian species predominantly distributed in Cerrado areas and transitional regions with the Caatinga in Northeastern Brazil, whose fruits exhibit significant nutritional, technological, and biofunctional potential. This review systematizes and critically analyzes the available scientific evidence regarding the fixed oil extracted from its fruits, addressing extraction methods, chemical composition, physicochemical parameters, nutritional value, technological applications, and the main bioactivities described in experimental models. Chromatographic and bromatological studies demonstrate that the oil presents a lipid profile characterized by the predominance of monounsaturated and saturated fatty acids, especially oleic acid and palmitic acid, in addition to the presence of carotenoids, phenolic compounds, and other bioactive lipophilic constituents. Available preclinical evidence indicates antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, wound-healing, gastroprotective, respiratory, anticonvulsant, and microbial resistance-modulating properties, suggesting potential applications in the food, pharmaceutical, cosmetic, and biotechnological fields. From the perspective of Food Science, the oil demonstrates characteristics compatible with lipid matrices of functional interest, although aspects related to oxidative stability, compositional standardization, sensory acceptability, and industrial scale-up remain insufficiently explored. Additionally, important limitations persist regarding the scarcity of systematic toxicological studies, the absence of clinical trials in humans, and the limited elucidation of the molecular mechanisms involved in the observed bioactivities. Although C. coriaceum presents promising biotechnological potential, its translational application still depends on further multidisciplinary studies integrating chemical standardization, toxicological safety, and technological development. Full article

Manilkara zapota (M. zapota), commonly known as sapodilla, is a tropical fruit recognized for its nutritional value and diverse phytochemical composition. This review critically summarizes recent evidence (2013–2026) regarding the phytochemistry, biological activities, safety profile, and food industry relevance of M. zapota, using literature retrieved from Google Scholar, PubMed, Scopus, Web of Science, Science Direct, and other scientific databases. Different parts of the plant, including its fruits, leaves, seeds, and bark, contain a wide range of bioactive compounds, such as gallic acid, caffeic acid, quercetin, catechin, myricetin, kaempferol, β-sitosterol, stigmasterol, alkaloids, tannins, saponins, triterpenes, and glycosides. Experimental studies have demonstrated antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial, gastroprotective, glucose homeostasis, and antiproliferative activities associated with these phytochemicals. Mechanistically, M. zapota extracts have been reported to modulate oxidative stress markers, inflammatory mediators, apoptotic pathways, and lipid metabolism-related enzymes in in vitro and animal studies. Available toxicological evidence suggests that certain extracts were well tolerated under specific experimental conditions; however, further standardized safety assessments and clinical investigations remain necessary. In addition to its pharmacological relevance, M. zapota has potential applications in functional foods and food processing industries, including jams, jellies, spreads, fruit bars, beverages, and nutraceutical formulations. Overall, M. zapota represents a promising underutilized plant with potential relevance for food, nutraceutical, and future biomedical applications. Full article