Search Results (130)

Dispersal mechanisms of phytopathogenic fungi and oomycetes are critical components of forest disease dynamics. While wind and water are well-studied pathways, the role of large forest herbivores as passive vectors remains significantly overlooked. This study quantifies and compares the pathogen loads carried on the hooves and hair of wild red deer (Cervus elaphus) to evaluate their epidemiological potential. Swab samples were collected from the hooves and hair of harvested deer in the Czerwony Bór Forest District, Poland. Quantitative PCR (qPCR) assays targeting the ITS1 region were deployed to detect total fungal DNA, Alternaria alternata, Fusarium avenaceum/F. tricinctum, and several Phytophthora species. A linear mixed-effects model was implemented to statistically evaluate variations in pathogen loads across anatomical sampling locations while controlling for individual animal variability. Fungal DNA was detected in 87.5% of hoof samples, showing significantly lower Ct values (13.85–18.54) compared to fur samples (17.02–29.56), which exhibited a more patchy distribution (p = 0.016). Similarly, A. alternata transfer was highly favored by hooves (p < 0.001). Conversely, F. avenaceum was more frequently detected on hair. Among oomycetes, Phytophthora pseudosyringae was detected in all sampled animals, whereas Phytophthora cactorum occurred rarely, and other tested Phytophthora species were not detected. Wild deer carry DNA of multiple fungal and oomycete pathogens and may act as potential passive carriers within forest ecosystems. Hooves constitute the primary vector for soil-borne pathogens due to sustained contact with topsoil, whereas hair facilitates the movement of specific canopy or airborne taxa. These findings suggest that wildlife movements should be considered in future forest biosecurity assessments for comprehensive forest health management and for understanding pathogen exchange between forest and agricultural ecosystems. Full article

Fusarium proliferatum is a fungal pathogen with an exceptionally broad host range, infecting ornamental plants and forest trees such as Populus and Cedrus deodara, and causing heart rot, root rot, and other diseases that lead to severe yield losses. It can also produce mycotoxins, including fumonisins, which threaten human and animal health. Conventional detection relies on isolation, culture, and morphological identification, which are time-consuming and prone to misidentification. Here, we established a rapid, visual molecular detection method by combining recombinase polymerase amplification (RPA) with the CRISPR/Cas12a system, targeting the F. proliferatum-specific gene Fpro_15953. The assay exhibited high specificity: the F. proliferatum isolate from C. deodara tested positive, while 37 non-target isolates (10 other Fusarium species, 10 other fungi, 15 oomycetes, and 2 Bursaphelenchus nematodes) produced no detectable signal. Under isothermal conditions at 37 °C, after 10 min of RPA followed by 10 min of Cas12a cleavage, as little as 0.001 ng·μL⁻¹ of F. proliferatum genomic DNA could be detected. The method further succeeded in detecting F. proliferatum in artificially inoculated C. deodara needles and Populus × hopeiensis stem and root segments. This RPA-CRISPR/Cas12a platform provides an efficient, accurate tool for F. proliferatum detection and supports rapid field diagnosis. Full article

Maintaining food systems in the face of climate change (CC) is a major concern. Palm oil is included in many commodities, and oil palms (OPs) will be adversely affected by an inclement future climate, which could cause OPs to experience increases in disease incidence, higher mortality and a decline in growth. Basal stem rot, bud rot and Fusarium wilt of the OP are considered in the present paper, as attempts to control these diseases have been unsuccessful. A new approach may be the replacement of compromised OPs with different crops better suited to the future climate and which may exhibit fewer diseases initially because of the “parasites lost” phenomenon. Maintaining a vegetable oil product is an important advantage of this approach. How CC will affect OPs has been determined previously by CLIMEX modelling. The modelling of a future suitable climate has also been carried out for soybeans, maize and the common bean using the same modelling parameters. This enables direct comparisons with the OP production in countries such as Colombia, Nigeria and Papua New Guinea. Limited data for rapeseed are also available. The results show that the suitability of future suitable climate for OPs was much reduced in these countries and that for soybeans remained beneficial. Under these conditions, soybeans may exhibit fewer diseases, as they would be an introduced and annual crop. Maize exhibited far fewer advantages, and the common bean and rapeseed showed none. Maize exhibited potential advantages in Nigeria until 2050. A novel method for adapting to the serious diseases, poor growth and mortality of OPs would be to grow soybeans in regions similar to those in which OPs currently grow, but for which modelling suggests that their health will become limited. Plans, which could be modified when real-time data become available, could be made for replacing OPs with soybeans. This current paper provides a novel method for mitigating the future diseases, poor growth and mortality of OPs whilst maintaining valuable oil production. Full article

Temperature is a state variable that affects all life. While it is known that archaea can grow at 120 °C and many bacteria can grow at over 100 °C, no eukaryote is known to complete a life cycle at above 65 °C. This paper explores why the difference in the maximum temperature of eukaryotes and other kingdoms of life might occur. It finds that chemical and genome structural differences between the domains of life are unlikely to explain the difference in maximum growth temperature, with the exception of the Saccharomycotina, which are different from other fungi, possibly because of their unique ecology. The distribution of inherently disordered proteins (IDPs), however, is significantly correlated with maximum and minimum growth temperature in fungi, and with the range of temperatures over which fungi can grow. I also demonstrate that the range of temperatures over which a species can grow is correlated with its maximum temperature. I postulate that the range is correlated with maximum temperature because all real-world ecologies fluctuate between elevated and average surface temperatures, and the thermodynamics of IDP-based structures in eukaryotes inherently limits the range over which they can operate. Thus, the 65 °C maximum temperature limit for eukaryotes is a result of a combination of thermodynamic properties of their organization and the temperature regime on the modern Earth; I suggest an experimental approach to testing this. Full article

Damping-off disease represents a major constraint in greenhouse tomato (Solanum lycopersicum) production, being primarily caused by soil-borne fungi and oomycetes whose persistence is intensified by intensive cultivation practices. This review synthesizes current knowledge on integrated disease management strategies targeting these pathogens in protected cropping systems. Cultural practices (e.g., substrate sanitation and irrigation control), physical and chemical soil disinfestation, deployment of resistant cultivars, and biological control agents (e.g., Trichoderma, Bacillus, and Pseudomonas) are critically evaluated. Available evidence indicates that integrated approaches consistently reduce pathogen inoculum, limit infection processes, and enhance seedling establishment and vigor, thereby outperforming single-method interventions. Synergistic interactions among practices strengthen rhizosphere resilience and contribute to sustained soil health. Overall, integrated disease management offers an effective and environmentally sound framework to mitigate damping-off, reduce reliance on chemical inputs, and ensure stable tomato production in protected cultivation systems. Full article

As a non-pathogenic oomycete, Pythium oligandrum possesses unique advantages, particularly in the context of being a biological control agent. With the increasing awareness of consumer consciousness, people are paying more attention to the use of environmentally friendly strategies in plant disease prevention and control. Pythium oligandrum is a type of biocontrol oomycete that can be developed as a biological control agent, and it does not have adverse effects on humans in the prevention and control of plant diseases. Consequently, there is increasing scientific interest in the beneficial plant–microbe interactions mediated by P. oligandrum. Currently, the main points of focus regarding the beneficial role of P. oligandrum in plant interactions are as follows: (i) P. oligandrum can activate plant defense responses and cause plants to produce resistance, thus protecting them from disease attacks; (ii) it is a strong mycoparasite that can coil around various oomycetes and fungi, directly killing pathogenic microorganisms; (iii) in addition, it can also promote plant growth. In this paper, we will discuss the aforementioned three main features in detail. Full article

With the rapid expansion of avocado cultivation in southern Italy, growers have had to deal with the emergence of new diseases often caused by invasive and polyphagous pathogens responsible for leaf spot, branch cankers, dieback and fruit and root rot. Given the severity of these emerging diseases, a study was conducted in the main avocado growing areas in Sardinia and Sicily (Italy) to isolate and characterize the causal agents. Specifically, a total of 430 symptomatic leaf, fruit, branch, stem and root samples were collected and examined. Isolations performed on both non-selective and selective growth media yielded 22 species (fungi and oomycetes) belonging to the genera Botryosphaeria, Colletotrichum, Diplodia, Dothiorella, Macrophomina, Neofusicoccum and Phytophthora, including 14 new host–pathogen records in Italy. Notably, Neofusicoccum australe, Phytophthora cinnamomi and Phytophthora palmivora emerged as the main pathogens involved in the emerging avocado diseases. The identified pathogens were often isolated simultaneously from the same plants, which exhibited a complex of symptoms. Pathogenicity bioassays have helped to clarify the differences in aggressiveness among the different species and their specificity towards the different plant organs. The results achieved suggest that avocado orchards’ productivity and profitability is threatened by a plethora of unrelated pathogens whose control represents a major challenge for the success of this crop in Italy. Full article

Autophagy is a conserved degradation pathway essential for cellular homeostasis in plants. Selective autophagy confers cargo specificity through receptors, among which NEIGHBOR OF BRCA1 GENE1 (NBR1) is one of the best-characterized. NBR1 mediates the selective turnover of ubiquitinated or stress-damaged cargoes, including protein aggregates and damaged organelles, by linking them to ATG8-decorated autophagosomes via its AIM and UBA domains. This process supports proteostasis, plant development, and adaptation to abiotic stresses, including heat, drought, chilling, salinity, and heavy metals, as well as biotic stresses from bacteria, fungi, viruses, and oomycetes. In this review, we summarize current advances in understanding NBR1 structure, evolutionary conservation, and cargo recognition mechanisms, and highlight its interplay with phytohormone signaling and the ubiquitin–proteasome system (UPS) in shaping plant growth and stress resilience. Full article

Tomato late blight caused by Phytophthora infestans is a devastating disease, and current control of the disease relies heavily on chemical fungicides. Certain Trichoderma strains used as biocontrol fungi have shown superb efficacy against P. infestans and some other oomycete phytopathogens. In this study, T. paratroviride strain 8942 appeared to be effective in control of tomato late blight disease, reducing the necrosis degree of plant tissues, promoting callose deposition in tomato leaves, and increasing defense enzyme activities. RT-qPCR analysis showed that strain 8942 inhibited metabolism of salicylic acid and promoted metabolism of jasmonic acid at the early stage of colonization. In addition, root colonization of the strain significantly promoted tomato growth. Observations of rhizosphere soil properties showed that 8942 significantly increased the activities of urease, catalase, and protease, and its cell-free filtrates at low concentrations induced the accumulation of auxin in root tips. Transcriptomic data suggested the existence of a balance between biotrophic adaptation and biocontrol readiness during 8942’s interaction with tomato roots. Trichoderma paratroviride strain 8942 is promising and has potential for biological control of tomato late blight and plant growth promotion, as determined by integrated investigations of hormonal regulation, rhizosphere modulation, transcriptional reprogramming, etc. Full article

The RNA interference machinery is crucial for regulating the activity of both native and foreign genes across all eukaryotes. The core protein families involved in this process are Dicer-like, Argonaute, and RNA-dependent RNA polymerase. However, plants exhibit remarkable diversity within each family and extensively use RNA interference mechanisms in their intricate immune responses. This review examines the role of RNA interference in plant interactions with various pathogens, including viruses, viroids, fungi, oomycetes, and bacteria. Plant diseases cause an estimated $220 billion in annual damage, with microorganisms accounting for approximately $150 billion. Hence, the focus is on the most severe plant diseases, specifically those caused by fungi and viruses. Additionally, recent biotechnological advancements are discussed, with an emphasis on the application of RNA interference for the development of novel plant defence strategies. Full article

Plant–pathogen interactions are complex biological processes characterized by dynamic changes in genes expression. In molecular plant pathology research, RT-qPCR has proven to be a valuable tool for investigating plant–pathogen interactions by examining gene expression changes in both plants and pathogens during infection. The choice of reliable reference genes is crucial, as this directly affects the robustness of normalization and the accuracy of analyzing the expression of genes of interest. A systematic literature search was conducted across relevant academic databases, resulting in the selection of 47 articles (38 on fungi and oomycetes, 7 on bacteria and 2 covering both bacteria, fungi and oomycetes) that evaluated the stability of 190 candidate reference genes. The most used reference genes in plant—fungal and oomycete pathosystems were GAPDH, ACT, TUB and EF, whereas UBQ, TUB, EF and ACT were most used in plant—bacterial pathosystems. Reference genes revealed considerable variability in their stability across different crops, pathogens and experimental conditions. Notably, several classical reference genes, traditionally assumed to maintain stable expression, exhibited considerable variability, supporting concerns regarding their reliability as universal references. Therefore, this review provides important insights for researchers seeking to identify suitable reference genes for their validation studies in plant–pathogen interaction. Full article

Chitin is an essential polysaccharide of the fungal cell wall, critical for structural integrity, cell division and, in pathogenic fungi, virulence. As chitin is absent in both plant and mammalian systems, chitin synthases are considered attractive targets for the specific control of fungal pathogens. Yet despite decades of research, structural information on chitin synthases was lacking and inhibitors have failed to gain approval in the clinic. Current inhibitors are also ineffective against major agricultural pathogens such as Aspergillus and Fusarium species, largely due to the presence of multiple chitin synthase isoforms in filamentous fungi and the cell wall compensatory response induced under stress. However, recent cryo-electron microscopy structures of Class I chitin synthases from yeasts Saccharomyces cerevisiae and Candida albicans and an oomycete chitin synthase have provided unprecedented insights into the structural and mechanistic properties of these large, transmembrane proteins. These studies revealed conserved, domain-swapped homodimer architectures, distinct substrate binding and catalytic pockets, and sophisticated intrinsic regulatory mechanisms. With these breakthroughs, this review summarises our current understanding of fungal chitin biosynthesis, the challenges that remain to fully biochemically characterise these enzymes, and considers how the new structural insights may guide the development of broad-spectrum antifungals. Full article

Lysobacter enzymogenes is well known for producing extracellular enzymes and bioactive molecules that suppress a wide range of plant pathogens, including fungi such as Rhizoctonia and Fusarium spp. and oomycetes such as Phytophthora infestans. It also exhibits antagonistic effects against Gram-negative bacteria through the type IV secretion system. Interestingly, L. enzymogenes JCK1421, isolated from the rhizosphere of pine forests, showed neither antifungal nor antibacterial activity, in contrast to other L. enzymogenes strains. However, foliar application of JCK1421 significantly reduced disease symptoms in tomato seedlings challenged with Ralstonia solanacearum. To elucidate the underlying defense mechanisms, comparative transcriptome analysis integrated with network and pathway enrichment approaches was performed. Comparative transcriptome and network analyses identified signaling modules activated by JCK1421 in pathogen-free plants and further enhanced upon R. solanacearum challenge. In challenged plants, JCK1421 treatment strongly induced resistance-related genes, including those encoding Ca²⁺-dependent proteins and ion channels, hormone biosynthesis components, and mitogen-activated protein kinase cascades—hallmarks of plant immune responses. These findings demonstrate that JCK1421 provides an effective model for investigating microbe-associated defense activation in plants, highlighting its potential as an eco-friendly agent for sustainable crop protection. Full article

Soil-borne plant pathogens pose a serious threat to global food security by causing extensive yield losses and compromising crop quality. Conventional chemical-based control methods often prove inadequate, environmentally harmful, and disruptive to beneficial soil microbiota, highlighting the urgent need for sustainable alternatives. Plant growth-promoting fungi (PGPF) have emerged as effective biocontrol agents capable of suppressing diverse soil-borne pathogens while simultaneously enhancing plant growth and resilience. This review synthesizes current knowledge on the tripartite interactions among plants, pathogens, and PGPF within the rhizosphere, with emphasis on their roles in disease suppression, rhizosphere competence, and plant health promotion. The findings highlight that PGPF such as Trichoderma, Penicillium, Aspergillus, non-pathogenic Fusarium, hypovirulent binucleate Rhizoctonia and sterile fungi can significantly reduce diseases caused by fungi, oomycetes, bacteria, nematodes, and protists through mechanisms including antibiosis, hyperparasitism, competition, and induction of systemic resistance. Evidence also indicates that consortium approaches and bioformulations enhance field efficacy compared to single-strain applications. Despite this progress, challenges such as variability in field performance, limited shelf life of inoculants, and gaps in understanding ecological interactions constrain large-scale use. Overall, the review underscores that PGPF-based strategies represent a promising and sustainable alternative to chemical pesticides, with strong potential for integration into holistic crop disease management under changing climatic conditions. Full article