Search Results (148)

Mycotoxin contamination in wheat products has consistently been a key issue of concern in food safety, and urinary biomonitoring provides an effective approach for assessing internal human exposure. In this study, a sensitive ultra-performance liquid chromatography–tandem mass spectrometry method was developed and validated for the simultaneous determination of 28 mycotoxins in wheat products and human urine. For the two matrices, the extraction solvent, acid concentration, solid-phase extraction cartridge type, and enzymatic hydrolysis parameters were optimized. Under the optimized conditions, all target compounds showed excellent linear relationships within the tested concentration ranges (R² > 0.99). In wheat products, the spiked recoveries ranged from 70.2% to 120%, the repeatabilities ranged from 1.6% to 9.1%, and the limits of detection and limits of quantification were 0.001~8.3 μg/kg and 0.002~25.0 μg/kg, respectively. In urine, the spiked recoveries ranged from 79.3% to 120%, the repeatabilities ranged from 0.7% to 9.4%, and the limits of detection and limits of quantification were 0.0001~1.0 μg/L and 0.0002~3.0 μg/L, respectively. Analysis of real samples showed that at least seven mycotoxins were detected in wheat product samples, and at least five were detected in urine samples. In wheat products, the detection rates of deoxynivalenol, enniatin B, enniatin A₁, enniatin B₁, tenuazonic acid, and tentoxin were all 100%, whereas in urine, the detection rate of fumonisin B₁ reached 100%, and tenuazonic acid showed the highest mean concentration in both matrices. In conclusion, the developed ultra-performance liquid chromatography–tandem mass spectrometry method is suitable for the simultaneous quantification of 28 mycotoxins in wheat products and human urine, and its preliminary application demonstrates good practical applicability. Full article

Emerging mycotoxins are unregulated natural toxins, often detected in small-grain cereal crops. They are produced by various Fusarium molds and have been reported in surveys conducted across Europe. Many Fusarium species that produce mycotoxins thrive and exhibit greater pathogenicity under relatively warm and humid conditions. Environmental conditions that promote fungal growth often also enhance mycotoxin accumulation. Various abiotic factors influence both Fusarium growth and mycotoxin biosynthesis, and several studies have associated these environmental conditions with the occurrence of enniatins (ENNs) and beauvericin (BEA) in cereal crops. Ongoing climate change in Europe may further support the spread and development of Fusarium species, potentially increasing the production of emerging mycotoxins. Following recent updates on the occurrence of these mycotoxins, this review evaluates the scientific literature concerning Fusarium species responsible for ENNs and BEA production. Full article

Mycotoxin contamination remains a persistent threat to food safety in the Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC) and neighboring countries, driven by conducive tropical agroecological conditions, inadequate post-harvest practices, and limited regulatory governance. This critical narrative review (2009–2024) synthesizes the occurrence data for major staple foods (maize, peanuts, cassava, sorghum, millet, and beans) and dairy products compiled from Google Scholar, ScienceDirect, MDPI and institutional sources. It examines the co-occurrence patterns, exposure pathways, and analytical and regulatory gaps. Warm, humid lowland environments favor Aspergillus and aflatoxins, whereas cooler, humid highland zones promote Fusarium, fumonisins, and deoxynivalenol. Across commodities, contamination intensifies along food value chains through inadequate drying, non-hermetic storage, insect damage, and prolonged handling, with processed products generally exhibiting the highest levels of mycotoxins. Regulated mycotoxins, including aflatoxins, fumonisins, trichothecenes, ochratoxins, and zearalenone, frequently exceed European Union (EU), East African Community (EAC), and Codex Alimentarius Commission (CAC) limits in staple foods. Their co-occurrence is widespread, including emerging mycotoxins such as beauvericin and enniatins, particularly in maize- and peanut-based products, raising concerns about potential additive or synergistic effects. Aflatoxin M1 in milk highlights plant–feed–animal–human transfer within a One Health framework. Despite increasing evidence, the available data remain fragmented and heterogeneous; rapid tests dominate, while few studies employ multi-mycotoxin LC-MS/MS methods. Cross-border trade between countries, such as Uganda, Tanzania, Zambia and Angola, facilitates the circulation of contaminated commodities in the absence of harmonized standards and risk-based controls. Priorities include harmonized regional surveillance, biomarker-based co-exposure assessment, cost-effectiveness evaluation of mitigation strategies, and regulatory alignment at borders. Coordinated, multisectoral action is essential to reduce chronic dietary exposure and improve food safety across the region. Full article

The widespread occurrence of emerging mycotoxins (EMs) produced by Fusarium, Aspergillus, and Penicillium species has raised increasing concerns regarding food and feed safety. Mitigation strategies currently applied to control regulated mycotoxins in feed may also be effective in reducing contamination by EMs. This study comparatively evaluated the in vitro adsorption efficacy of two leonardites, eight natural smectites, and two modified clays (organoclays) against EMs produced by Fusarium, Aspergillus, and Penicillium spp. All materials were tested at two inclusion levels (0.1 and 0.5% w/v) under two pH conditions (pH 3 and 7), simulating the gastrointestinal environment of monogastric animals. Adsorption performance was strongly influenced by mycotoxin chemistry, adsorbent type, inclusion rate, and medium pH. Organoclays exhibited the highest and most consistent efficacy, achieving near-complete adsorption of beauvericin (BEA) and enniatins (ENNs) (>98–100%) at 0.1% (w/v), as well as high removal of mycophenolic acid (MYC. A.) and citrinin (CIT) (>90%) across both pH conditions. Natural smectites showed high but more selective adsorption, removing >90% of BEA and ENNs at low inclusion rates, while displaying limited efficacy toward fusaric acid (FA) and patulin (PAT). Leonardites demonstrated intermediate and material-dependent performance; leonardite L1 adsorbed approximately 90% of BEA at 0.1% (w/v), whereas ENN adsorption ranged from ~36% to 80% at the same inclusion rate and exceeded 90% only at higher dosages. None of the tested materials effectively adsorbed patulin (PAT) at pH 7; however, at pH 3, four smectites exhibited partial adsorption, and one trioctahedral smectite achieved more than 90% PAT adsorption under acidic conditions. Overall, organoclays displayed the broadest adsorption spectrum across structurally diverse mycotoxins, while smectites exhibited high selectivity driven by surface charge density and interlayer interactions. Leonardite-based materials showed moderate but highly variable adsorption performance, likely influenced by heterogeneity in humic functional groups and physicochemical properties. These findings highlight the need for tailored adsorbent selection or combined mitigation strategies to achieve effective mycotoxin control in the animal feed industry. Full article

Enniatins (ENNs) are emerging Fusarium mycotoxins detected in food and feed. Despite their widespread occurrence, their toxicity remains poorly understood; thus, advanced in vitro systems that can mimic human physiology are of interest. We evaluated the cytotoxic and genotoxic effects of ENN A1 and ENN B1 exposure on differentiated (DIFF) and undifferentiated (UND) HepaRG liver cells cultured as 2D monolayers and 3D spheroids. Cytotoxicity, assessed by ATP-based luminescence, revealed a time-dependent decrease in inhibitory concentration 50 (IC₅₀) values between 24 h and 48 h across all models. In DIFF HepaRG cells, ENN A1 IC₅₀ values in 3D spheroids decreased from 14.4–18.2 µM at 24 h to 2.2–3.0 µM at 48 h, reaching values comparable to those measured in 2D DIFF cells at 48 h (2.2–2.6 µM), while no IC₅₀ could be determined in 2D at 24 h. For ENN B1, a pronounced time-dependent toxicity was observed, with IC₅₀ values in 3D DIFF spheroids decreasing from 4.1–6.6 µM at 24 h to 1.3–1.6 µM at 48 h, remaining lower than those measured in 2D DIFF cells at 48 h (2.4–3.0 µM). ENN A1 primarily induced apoptotic responses, whereas both ENN A1 and B1 were associated with necrotic responses, and ENN B1 induced a transient and limited autophagic signal, suggesting a minor role for autophagy. To further characterize cellular responses to ENN exposure, spheroids cultured in microfluidic chips were sectioned, and proliferation (Ki67), DNA damage (γH2AX), and apoptosis (cleaved caspase-3) was assessed. Immunostaining revealed no proliferative response, whereas significant DNA damage was detected, particularly in DIFF spheroids. At low, sub-cytotoxic concentrations (~5 µM, 24 h), ENN A1 induced significant DNA damage, as shown by increased γH2AX levels, while cytotoxic effects were only observed at higher concentrations (IC₅₀ ~ 18 µM, 24 h), supporting a potential genotoxic effect independent of cytotoxicity. Despite the structural similarities between ENN A1 and ENN B1, our results highlighted distinct cell death pathways between the two analogues. Both ENNs were detected throughout spheroids without evidence of peripheral restriction, although a homogeneous functional test could not be conclusively demonstrated. Overall, the 3D HepaRG spheroid model proved to be a more physiologically relevant system, offering differential sensitivity, as well as enhanced mechanistic insight, compared to 2D cultures. Full article

Mycotoxins are toxic secondary metabolites produced by filamentous fungi which are commonly found as natural contaminants in food and feed worldwide. In recent years, aquaculture research has increasingly focused on changing fish feed by replacing traditional protein sources with plant-based and insect ingredients to promote sustainability. However, this shift has raised concerns about mycotoxin contamination in farmed fish, fish products, and processing by-products. As a result, the pursuit of sustainable aquaculture practices may inadvertently increase the risk of mycotoxin exposure. To date, studies on freshwater fish have focused primarily on regulated mycotoxins, and the findings have demonstrated their occurrence in muscle, liver, intestine, ovaries, and hepatopancreas. Most studies have investigated aflatoxin B1, and its presence has been confirmed in the muscle tissue of several fish species. In marine fish, research has encompassed a broader spectrum of mycotoxins, including emerging and masked forms, across multiple tissues and organs. However, across various studies, conflicting results have been reported regarding the occurrence of emerging mycotoxins, particularly enniatins and beauvericin. This paper reviews current research on mycotoxin contamination in farmed fish, summarising detected levels across freshwater and marine species and in derived products, and also discusses future perspectives on mycotoxin risks in sustainable aquaculture. Full article

Wheat is a major staple crop in Xinjiang, China; however, comprehensive data on Fusarium mycotoxin contamination in wheat from this region remain limited. Despite recent observations of Fusarium head blight (FHB), few studies have characterized the mycotoxin profiles in wheat from Xinjiang, especially regarding emerging mycotoxins. This study aimed to systematically investigate the occurrence of both conventional and emerging mycotoxins in freshly harvested wheat from Xinjiang, to evaluate the effects of sampling year and geographical region on mycotoxin contamination levels, and to identify the Fusarium species responsible for mycotoxin production. A total of 151 freshly harvested wheat samples were collected from Southern and Northern Xinjiang in 2023 and 2024. Mycotoxins were quantified using high-performance liquid chromatography–tandem mass spectrometry (HPLC-MS/MS). Fusarium isolates were obtained and identified through the translation elongation factor 1-alpha (TEF-1α) gene sequencing. Genotyping was assessed by genotype-specific multiplex PCR, and mycotoxigenic potential was detected by rice culture assays. A high incidence (72.9%) of co-contamination with multiple mycotoxins was observed. Conventional mycotoxins such as deoxynivalenol (DON) and zearalenone (ZEN) were detected in 31.1% and 41.1% of samples. Notably, emerging mycotoxins, including enniatins (ENNs) and beauvericin (BEA), were present at significantly higher concentrations than those reported in some regions of China. Significant spatiotemporal variation was observed, with markedly higher contamination levels of emerging mycotoxins in 2024, particularly in Northern Xinjiang, where the symptoms of FHB epidemic occurred due to the humid climate and maize–wheat rotation system. Fusarium graminearum was identified as the primary producer of conventional mycotoxins, while F. acuminatum and F. avenaceum were mainly associated with emerging mycotoxins except BEA. This study provides the first comprehensive dataset on the co-occurrence of conventional and emerging Fusarium mycotoxins in wheat from Xinjiang and highlights significant spatiotemporal variations influenced by environmental factors. These findings underscore the necessity for continuous, region-specific monitoring and effective risk management strategies to address the evolving mycotoxin threat in Xinjiang’s wheat. Future research should focus on characterizing the populations of Fusarium toxin-producing fungi and the long-term impacts of mycotoxin exposure on food safety. Full article

(1) Background: Humans and animals are exposed daily to numerous food-associated noxious molecules, including fungal toxins or mycotoxins. Effects of mycotoxins on the intestinal epithelial cells (IECs) are well characterized. However, their impact on the enteric nervous system (ENS), particularly on enteric glial cells (EGCs), has not been evaluated. (2) Methods: In the present work, the impact of major mycotoxins (eighteen mycotoxins in total, both regulated and non-regulated (including emerging ones) mycotoxins) on EGCs was evaluated in vitro in terms of antiproliferative and cytotoxic effects using rat EGCs as a model. Inhibitory concentrations on cell division and cell viability were determined using the resazurin assay, and biochemical analysis was performed to identify the mechanism(s) of action involved. (3) Results: Of the eighteen mycotoxins tested, twelve were found to be toxic; apicidin, deoxynivalenol, and cyclohexadepsipeptide mycotoxins (enniatins and beauvericin) were the most toxic, with active concentrations as low as 0.19 ± 0.07 µM for deoxynivalenol. Mechanistic studies revealed that toxicity occurs through the induction of oxidative stress, alteration of the membrane integrity, and/or induction of apoptosis. (4) Conclusions: As far as we know, the data presented here show for the first time that EGCs are targets of foodborne mycotoxins, even at low concentrations potentially achieved in cases of ingesting contaminated food. Full article

Mycotoxins are secondary metabolites produced by various fungal species that can contaminate food and feed, posing significant risks to human and animal health. In aquaculture, the replacement of fishmeal with alternative protein sources has increased the risk of mycotoxin contamination, becoming a major challenge in fish feed production. Current data highlights that fish are exposed not only to common mycotoxins but also to emerging ones, raising concerns about human exposure through fish consumption. In this review, we draw attention to the toxicity data of key emerging mycotoxins from Fusarium (enniatins, ENNs; beauvericin, BEA) and Alternaria (alternariol monomethyl ether, AME; alternariol, AOH), their occurrence in aquafeeds and in commercially relevant fish species in Europe, and potential biocontrol approaches to prevent/mitigate contaminations. From the present review, it emerged that these mycotoxins exhibit in vitro cytotoxic properties. Their prevalence and concentrations vary widely both among aquafeeds, depending on the sample’s origin, and among fish species. Biocontrol approaches using microorganisms or natural compounds show promise as sustainable solutions to limit contamination. However, further research is essential to address data gaps and to allow for a proper risk assessment and, if necessary, the implementation of effective management measures. Full article

Several species of Fusarium are reported to infect inflorescences of high-THC-containing cannabis (Cannabis sativa L.) plants grown in greenhouses in Canada. These include F. graminearum, F. sporotrichiodes, F. proliferatum, and, to a lesser extent, F. oxysporum and F. solani. The greatest concern surrounding the infection of cannabis by these Fusarium species, which cause symptoms of bud rot, is the potential for the accumulation of mycotoxins that may go undetected. In the present study, both naturally infected and artificially infected inflorescence tissues were tested for the presence of fungal-derived toxins using HPLC-MS/MS analysis. Naturally infected cannabis tissues were confirmed to be infected by both F. avenaceum and F. graminearum using PCR. Pure cultures of these two species and F. sporotrichiodes were inoculated onto detached inflorescences of two cannabis genotypes, and after 7 days, they were dried and assayed for mycotoxin presence. In these assays, all Fusarium species grew prolifically over the tissue surface. Tissues infected by F. graminearum contained 3-acetyl DON, DON, and zearalenone in the ranges of 0.13–0.40, 1.18–1.91, and 31.8 to 56.2 μg/g, respectively, depending on the cannabis genotype. In F. sporotrichiodes-infected samples, HT2 and T2 mycotoxins were present at 13.9 and 10.9 μg/g in one genotype and were lower in the other. In F. avenaceum-inoculated tissues, the mycotoxins enniatin A, enniatin A1, enniatin B, and enniatin B1 were produced at varying concentrations, depending on the isolate and cannabis genotype. Unexpectedly, these tissues also contained detectable levels of 3-acetyl DON, DON, and zearalenone, which was attributed to apre-existing natural infection by F. graminearum that was confirmed by RT-qPCR. Beauvericin was detected in tissues infected by F. avenaceum and F. sporotrichiodes, but not by F. graminearum. Naturally infected, dried inflorescences from which F. avenaceum was recovered contained beauvericin, enniatin A1, enniatin B, and enniatin B1 as expected. Uninoculated cannabis inflorescences were free of mycotoxins except for culmorin at 0.348 μg/g, reflecting pre-existing infection by F. graminearum. The mycotoxin levels were markedly different between the two cannabis genotypes, despite comparable mycelial colonization. Tall fescue plants growing in the vicinity of the greenhouse were shown to harbor F. avenaceum and F. graminearum, suggesting a likely external source of inoculum. Isolates of both species from tall fescue produced mycotoxins when inoculated onto cannabis inflorescences. These findings demonstrate that infection by F. graminearum and F. avenaceum, either from artificial inoculation or natural inoculum originating from tall fescue plants, can lead to mycotoxin accumulation in cannabis inflorescences. However, extensive mycelial colonization following prolonged incubation of infected tissues under high humidity conditions is required. Inoculations with Penicillium citrinum and Aspergillus ochraceus under these conditions produced no detectable mycotoxins. The mycotoxins alternariol and tentoxin were detected in several inflorescence samples, likely as a result of natural infection by Alternaria spp. Fusarium avenaceum is reported to infect cannabis inflorescences for the first time and produces mycotoxins in diseased tissues. Full article

This work proposes an insight into the mycotoxins detected in wheat from the 2023 and 2024 harvests in Belgium and highlights the link between agronomic conditions and mycotoxin contamination. The study utilized samples from a Belgian trial network, covering nine locations in 2023 and eight in 2024, ensuring diverse pedoclimatic contexts and including 11 different varieties. Sowing and harvest dates, previous crops and meteorological data were collected for these locations. A validated UPLC-MS/MS multi-mycotoxin method able to detect 20 mycotoxins, regulated or not, was used. Deoxynivalenol, zearalenone, and enniatins B and B1 were detected in the 2023 and 2024 samples. Enniatin A1 was only detected in the 2024 samples. Mycotoxin contamination was higher in 2024 compared to 2023, in terms of both the number of contaminated samples and the contamination levels. Enniatins B and B1, non-regulated mycotoxins, were widely detected in the 2024 wheat samples, with enniatin B detected in 68 out 88 samples ranging from 12 to 488 µg/kg. Differences between the wheat varieties were observed, with some varieties showing significantly higher contamination. Additionally, geographic location appeared to influence contamination levels, which could be related to previous crops or meteorological events. In conclusion, this research provides a comprehensive analysis of mycotoxin co-contamination in wheat samples from diverse pedoclimatic contexts in Belgium based over 2 years. It shows the importance of weather conditions on mycotoxin contamination. It also emphasizes the importance of variety selection to manage mycotoxin contamination. Full article

This study investigates the presence of mycotoxins in green coffee-based dietary supplements to ensure their safety, given the potential risks of contamination and the growing interest in them among consumers. A sample treatment based on a salting-out assisted liquid–liquid extraction (SALLE) followed by one-step solid-phase extraction (SPE) was selected for the extraction and clean-up of 15 mycotoxins followed by ultra-high performance chromatography–tandem mass spectrometry detection (UHPLC-MS/MS). The target mycotoxins included aflatoxins (AFG1, AFG2, AFB1, AFB2), Alternaria toxins (AOH, AME, TEN), ochratoxin A (OTA), fumonisins (FB1, FB2), zearalenone (ZEN), trichothecenes (T-2, HT-2), enniatin B1 (ENNB1), and beauvericin (BEA). The proposed method was successfully characterized, obtaining high recoveries, a satisfactory precision, and low detection limits. Subsequently, the method was applied for the analysis of 16 commercial food supplements. The analysis revealed the presence of mycotoxins in all samples investigated with Fusarium mycotoxins as the most prevalent. The dietary exposure and risk characterization revealed a low level of risk, except for AFs where chronic exposure in adults may lead to potential health concerns. Full article

The replacement of ingredients from animal sources with plant-based ingredients is increasing the risk of contamination by mycotoxins in aquafeeds, potentially causing detrimental effects on fish welfare. However, limited research has been carried out so far on the impact of mycotoxins on fish health. Hence, the aim of this study was to assess the toxicological effects of the dietary emerging (enniatin B, ENNB) and regulated (fumonisin B1, FB1) mycotoxins (150 µg/kg) in different tissues of juvenile gilthead seabream (Sparus aurata) after 28 days of dietary exposure. Fitness indexes, plasma metabolites, and biomarkers of oxidative stress, metabolism, cellular, and neurotoxic damage were assessed. The exposure to each mycotoxin was sufficient to cause distinct effects in fish tissues. ENNB appears to be the most harmful mycotoxin to S. aurata, inducing changes on alkaline phosphatase and lipase activities in plasma, as well as protein and lipid degradation in liver. Increased lipid degradation was also induced in the brain by FB1 alone or combined with ENNB, whereas the exposure to the mixture inhibited acetylcholinesterase activity. Overall, this study contributes by highlighting the toxicological attributes of ENNB, thus reinforcing the need to include this mycotoxin in future legislation. Full article

This study reports on the whole genome sequencing of the hazelnut endophytic Fusarium isolate Hzn5 from Poland. It was identified as a member of the Fusarium citricola species complex based on a phylogenetic analysis which also pointed out that other hazelnut isolates, previously identified as F. lateritium and F. tricinctum, actually belong to this species complex. Genome annotation allowed the mapping of 4491 different protein sequences to the genome assembly. A further in silico search for their potential biosynthetic activity showed that predicted genes are involved in 1110 metabolic pathways. Moreover, the analysis of the genome sequence carried out in comparison to another isolate, previously identified as an agent of hazelnut gray necrosis in Italy, revealed a homology to several regions containing biosynthetic gene clusters for bioactive secondary metabolites. The resulting indications for the biosynthetic aptitude concerning some emerging mycotoxins, such as the enniatins and culmorin, should be taken into consideration with reference to the possible contamination of hazelnuts and derived products. Full article

Plant-based materials are increasingly being used as ingredients of aquaculture feed. These materials are prone to mycotoxin contamination, as mycotoxigenic fungi infest crop plants in the field and agricultural products during storage. As mycotoxins can cause toxic effects in aquatic animals, their occurrence in feedstuffs should be monitored. To this end, we performed an extensive global survey of mycotoxin contamination in aquaculture feed and plant-based feed raw materials. We collected samples of compound feed for fish (n = 226) and shrimps (n = 61), maize (n = 3448), maize DDGS (n = 149), wheat (n = 1578), soybean (n = 428), and rice (n = 65). We analyzed concentrations of 51 mycotoxins, emerging mycotoxins, masked mycotoxins, and mycotoxin metabolites. Mycotoxins were almost ubiquitously present in compound feed, as >90% of samples were contaminated with at least one mycotoxin. Feed raw materials exhibited distinct mycotoxin occurrence patterns consistent with known susceptibility to fungal pathogens and with their production process. Unsafe concentrations of aflatoxin B₁ exceeding the EU maximum level were detected in 7.2% of fish feed samples. While most feedstuffs complied with EU guidance values for deoxynivalenol, zearalenone, and fumonisins, a comparison of detected concentrations with dietary concentrations reported to cause adverse effects in fish and shrimps in published studies indicated that significant fractions of samples contained potentially harmful levels of these mycotoxins. In addition to regulated mycotoxins, several emerging mycotoxins (e.g., enniatins, beauvericin, alternariol, moniliformin) were prevalent. Feed was frequently co-contaminated with multiple mycotoxins indicating a risk of combined effects. In conclusion, mycotoxin contamination was common in aquaculture feed and fractions of samples were contaminated with mycotoxin levels known to exert adverse effects in aquaculture species. Results of this survey highlight the necessity for targeted studies on the effects of frequently detected mycotoxin mixtures and emerging mycotoxins in fish and shrimp. Full article