Search Results (800)

Background/Objectives: Aluminium is a widespread environmental element and food contaminant to which the general population is continuously exposed, primarily through diet and drinking water. Although gastrointestinal absorption is generally low, bioavailability varies according to chemical form, food matrix, and interactions with dietary components. Prolonged exposure can nevertheless result in gradual tissue accumulation. This review summarises current evidence on dietary aluminium exposure, factors influencing its bioavailability, toxicokinetics, biological effects, gut microbiota interactions, and population-level health risk. Methods: A comprehensive narrative literature review was conducted using publications retrieved from PubMed/MEDLINE, Scopus, Web of Science, and Google Scholar. Original research articles, review papers, and reports issued by international organisations were critically evaluated with particular emphasis on dietary sources, drinking water, food additives, food contact materials, gastrointestinal absorption, toxicokinetics, biological mechanisms, gut microbiota, and health risk assessment. Results: Food represents the principal source of aluminium exposure in the general population, while drinking water usually contributes a smaller but continuous fraction of total oral intake. Dietary exposure varies substantially between populations and is influenced by food composition, processing practices, the use of aluminium-containing additives, and migration from food contact materials. Aluminium bioavailability is modified by chemical speciation and dietary constituents, including citrate, phosphates, silicates, phytates, polyphenols, and essential minerals. Despite limited absorption, prolonged exposure can lead to gradual aluminium accumulation, particularly in bone tissue and the central nervous system. Proposed biological mechanisms include oxidative stress, mitochondrial dysfunction, disruption of mineral homeostasis, and inflammatory signalling. Emerging evidence also indicates that aluminium may alter the gut microbiota, impair intestinal barrier integrity, and influence the gut–brain axis. Population exposure assessments show considerable regional variation, with some groups approaching or exceeding established tolerable weekly intake values. Conclusions: Dietary aluminium exposure represents a relevant issue in nutritional toxicology and food safety. Although current evidence does not establish that typical dietary exposure directly causes chronic disease, long-term exposure, differences in bioavailability, and the possibility of elevated intake in selected population groups justify continued monitoring and further prospective human studies. Future research should integrate dietary intake, aluminium speciation, nutritional status, biomarkers of internal exposure, and long-term health outcomes to improve risk assessment and support effective exposure-reduction strategies. Full article

Background: Alcohol and tobacco use remain important public health concerns among people living with HIV (PLWH), even after achieving viral load suppression. This study examined the socio-demographic factors associated with alcohol and tobacco use among virally suppressed PLWH in the Eastern Cape Province, South Africa. Methods: A cross-sectional study was conducted among 244 adults receiving antiretroviral therapy with suppressed viral loads at public healthcare facilities in the Eastern Cape Province. Data were collected using the Alcohol Use Disorders Identification Test (AUDIT) and the WHO STEPwise questionnaire. Alcohol use was classified according to the AUDIT, and participants were further categorised into low-risk (AUDIT score < 8) and risky drinking (AUDIT score ≥ 8) for regression analyses. Associations between socio-demographic characteristics and alcohol use were initially examined using cross-tabulations and exact tests where appropriate. Univariable and multivariable binary logistic regression analyses were subsequently performed to identify factors independently associated with risky alcohol use and smoking. Adjusted odds ratios (AORs) with 95% confidence intervals (CIs) were reported, with statistical significance set at p < 0.05. Results: Of the 244 participants, 57.0% were female, and 61.5% were employed. Based on the total AUDIT score, 60.2% of participants were classified as risky drinkers, while 44.3% were current smokers. In the multivariable analysis, employment was independently associated with risky alcohol use (AOR = 2.03, 95% CI: 1.11–3.73) and current smoking (AOR = 3.75, 95% CI: 1.98–7.08). Compared with single participants, married (AOR = 2.61, 95% CI: 1.25–5.45), separated (AOR = 5.19, 95% CI: 1.98–13.60), and divorced participants (AOR = 3.32, 95% CI: 1.05–10.49) had higher odds of risky alcohol use. Conclusion: Alcohol use and tobacco smoking remain common among virally suppressed PLWH in the Eastern Cape Province. Although viral load suppression is an important treatment outcome, it does not fully reflect broader health behaviours that may compromise long-term health. Integrating routine screening for alcohol and tobacco use, together with targeted behavioural interventions and harm reduction strategies, into comprehensive HIV care may improve long-term health outcomes. Full article

Background: Butyrate is a microbiota-derived short-chain fatty acid with established roles in maintaining intestinal barrier integrity and regulating immune responses. Although its effects have been extensively investigated in immunocompetent models, systemic immune homeostasis in severely immunodeficient hosts remains incompletely understood. This exploratory study evaluated the impact of sodium butyrate (NaB) supplementation on tissue-associated microbial antigen detection and immune marker distribution along different organs in athymic nude mice. Methods: Female NU/J athymic mice were administered either regular drinking water (H₂O, n = 10) or NaB-supplemented water (150 mM, n = 5) for six weeks. Intestinal, liver, lung, and kidney tissues were collected for histopathological and immunohistochemical analyses. Expression of microbial antigens, including lipopolysaccharide (LPS) and lipoteichoic acid (LTA), as well as immune-associated markers (CD3, CD8a, CD68, CD278, and transglutaminase-2 [TGM2]), was assessed using a semiquantitative scoring system. Results: NaB supplementation did not significantly affect organ morphology but was associated with better weight gain. Histological examination revealed preserved tissue architecture in all organs, with only mild condensation of small intestinal crypts in NaB-treated mice. Immunohistochemical analysis showed consistently lower LPS expression in NaB-treated animals compared with controls in the small intestine, liver, and kidney, with a borderline reduction in the lungs. Reduced LPS detection was accompanied by significantly lower expression of the macrophage marker CD68 in the kidney. Conclusions: Oral NaB supplementation was associated with lower detection of bacterial antigens in tissues and reduced innate immune expression across multiple organs. These findings support a potential role for butyrate in limiting microbial expression and systemic inflammatory signaling in athymic mice. Full article

Population growth, increasing water demands for data centers, and the need for more sustainable water practices are prompting advancement of next-generation water resource management strategies including water reuse. In the Midwestern United States (U.S.), where non-traditional approaches to augmenting water supply, including water reuse, are relatively new, full advanced water treatment (AWT), which includes microfiltration/ultrafiltration (MF/UF) and reverse osmosis (RO), produces a concentrate stream that is expensive to address (i.e., brine disposal). Carbon-based advanced treatment (CBAT), which combines ozonation, biofiltration, and granular activated carbon, has been shown to be a viable alternative with select advantages over the traditional RO approach, including the lack of brine generation. Two novel pilots were conducted in the Midwestern U.S., one at a large (>100 MGD) and one at a small (~10 MGD) wastewater reclamation facility (WRF), to provide proof of concept that CBAT could meet distinct regional needs. While additional demonstration data are ultimately needed for future regulatory approvals, results from the pilots showed that water quality objectives were met with treated water quality of <0.5 mg/L total Kjeldal nitrogen (TKN), <2 mg/L total organic carbon (TOC), and substantial reduction in constituents of emerging concern (CECs). If nitrate removal is required to meet drinking water standards (10 mg/L), additional treatment optimization at the source WRFs would be required. Areas for further research identified by this effort include mitigating the potential for ozonation to contribute to the formation of disinfection byproducts such as bromate and N-nitrosodimethylamine (NDMA). Along with the treatment performance demonstrated at these pilots, the study provided an opportunity to engage with key stakeholders to build trust in the AWT approach, which is critically important for regulatory and public acceptance. Based on two field-scale pilot studies in the U.S. Midwest, this paper analyzes CBAT application advantages and challenges in municipal water reuse and identifies research directions for the industry. Full article

Sugar sweetened beverages (SSBs) are an important source of added sugars and a key target for fiscal policies aimed at preventing obesity, type 2 diabetes and other non-communicable diseases. This study assessed the association of SSB taxes, tax structure and tax-design elements and changes in per capita soft drink sales volume across geographies from 2010 to 2024. Annual Euromonitor International Passport sales data were combined with national SSB tax-policy data from the World Bank and macroeconomic indicators. The final sample includes 74 geographies and 1096 geography-year observations. We use a multi-period difference-in-difference technique with staggered implementation of the policy and event-study estimation. SSB taxes were associated with a reduction of 7.286 L per person (p < 0.01), about 10.4% of the sample mean. Taxes with an explicit health objective were associated with larger reductions than taxes without a health objective. Ad valorem, mixed, and specific taxes were related with lower sales volume, although differences across structures were not significant. Importantly, the results imply policy design matters. This indicates that governments should evaluate not only whether to impose SSB taxes but also how to design, position, and communicate them as health-oriented fiscal policies. Full article

Background: 2,3,3,3-Tetrafluoro-2-(heptafluoropropoxy)propanoic acid (GenX) is a perfluoroether carboxylic acid that has been detected in drinking water sources. Its potential hepatotoxicity has raised concern, although the associated molecular alterations remain incompletely understood. Chlorogenic acid (CGA), a naturally occurring polyphenol, has been reported to affect oxidative stress and metabolic homeostasis. Methods: Adult male C57BL/6J mice were exposed to GenX (2 mg/kg/day) with or without CGA (30 mg/kg/day) by gavage for 12 weeks. AML12 cells were treated with GenX (10–800 μM) for 24 or 48 h to assess cell viability, and intracellular lipid accumulation was evaluated after exposure to 200 μM GenX for 24 h. Results: GenX exposure induced hepatomegaly, microvesicular steatosis, inflammatory cell infiltration, and a reduction in hepatic glycogen stores. It also decreased hepatic glutathione concentrations and increased hepatic malondialdehyde concentrations. Serum alanine aminotransferase, aspartate aminotransferase, total cholesterol, and triglyceride levels were elevated. In AML12 cells, GenX increased intracellular lipid accumulation, as assessed by Oil Red O staining. Transcriptomic analysis identified significant enrichment of the peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor (PPAR) signaling pathway. Consistently, GenX altered the expression of genes and proteins involved in lipogenesis, fatty acid uptake, lipid storage, and fatty acid oxidation, suggesting disturbed PPAR-related lipid metabolic regulation. Moreover, the decreased p-mTOR/mTOR ratio, increased LC3-II/I, and overexpression of Beclin1, p62, and inflammatory mediators in the GenX group might suggest changes in autophagy-related proteins and inflammatory response. CGA coadministration partially attenuated several GenX-induced hepatic alterations, including liver enlargement, hepatic lipid accumulation, lipid peroxidation, and changes in selected autophagy- and inflammation-related proteins. Conclusions: Subchronic GenX exposure-induced adverse hepatic effects might be associated with disrupted PPAR-related lipid metabolic regulation, oxidative stress, inflammatory responses, and changes in autophagy-related proteins. CGA might exert potential modulatory effects. Full article

A simple and cost-effective graphite paste electrode modified with 5-(4-aminophenyl)-4-amino-1,2,4-triazole-3(2H)-thione was developed for the selective voltammetric determination of Cu(II) ions in environmental water samples. The N,S-donor ligand was incorporated into a graphite–polystyrene matrix without the use of nanomaterials, providing a reproducible and straightforward electrode fabrication route. Scanning electron microscopy revealed a rough, porous surface morphology with an enhanced electroactive surface area of 0.065 cm², approximately twice the geometric area. Electrochemical impedance spectroscopy confirmed diffusion-controlled mass transport, while cyclic voltammetry indicated quasi-reversible behaviour of the Cu(II)/Cu(0) redox system with a linear dependence of peak current on the square root of the scan rate. Differential pulse voltammetry under optimised conditions (0.1 mol·L⁻¹ H₂SO₄, pH 1.0–1.2) yielded a linear analytical response over the concentration range of 0.01–0.4 μmol·L⁻¹ (R² = 0.99507), with a limit of detection of 0.02 μmol·L⁻¹ and a limit of quantification of 0.06 μmol·L⁻¹—well below the WHO guideline for copper in drinking water. The sensing mechanism involves selective N,S-bidentate coordination of Cu(II) at the electrode surface, followed by electrochemical reduction, as supported by FT-IR spectroscopic evidence. The sensor demonstrated good selectivity toward Cu(II) in the presence of common interfering metal ions at up to 20-fold excess. The method was successfully validated against ICP-OES (recovery 99.8%, RSD < 0.33%) and confirmed by spike–recovery experiments (99.0–99.5%), confirming its practical applicability for trace-level environmental monitoring. The modified electrode retained approximately 93% of its initial response after 30 consecutive measurements and 91% after 14 days of storage, demonstrating good operational stability. Full article

Background: Bacteriophage-based interventions are increasingly considered antibiotic-sparing tools in poultry production, but target-animal tolerability should be documented before efficacy-oriented field application. Methods: This pilot study evaluated the formulation-level tolerability of the repeated drinking-water administration of Fagovet, a commercial multi-component bacteriophage product, in Ross 308 broiler chickens under non-challenged conditions. According to the manufacturer’s product documentation, the formulation contains a declared mixture of 23 bacteriophages at a concentration of not less than 1 × 10⁶ plaque-forming units per milliliter. However, the concentration of active bacteriophages was not independently confirmed immediately before administration or after dilution in drinking water. A total of 120 birds were allocated to 12 pens, with three replicate pens per treatment, and received untreated water or product-volume-based administration rates corresponding to 1×, 3×, or 5× the manufacturer-recommended rate for 27 days. Body-weight gain and pen-level feed intake were analyzed using linear mixed-effects models with Dunnett-adjusted comparisons against controls. Clinical observations, mortality, diagnostic necropsies, terminal gross postmortem examination of all surviving birds, and descriptive histopathology in eight randomly selected birds, comprising two birds per treatment group, were used as supportive endpoints. Results: Body-weight gain did not differ from controls at 1× (ratio 0.99; 95% CI 0.88–1.10; p = 0.9856), 3× (1.03; 0.92–1.15; p = 0.8273), or 5× (1.01; 0.91–1.13; p = 0.9902). Feed intake showed no significant treatment-related reduction, and no consistent dose-related adverse clinical or pathological pattern was identified. Conclusions: Repeated drinking-water administration of the tested commercial formulation was well tolerated under the conditions of this pilot study. Because individual phage components, genomic safety, actual PFU-based exposure, and drinking-water stability were not independently characterized, the findings apply to the administered formulation and should not be interpreted as a component-level safety or quantitative phage dose–response assessment. Full article

Excessive fructose consumption is associated with metabolic syndrome (MS). This study evaluated the effect of two coffee by-products, coffee pulp (CP) and coffee silverskin (SK), on fructose-induced intestinal changes. Sprague–Dawley rats were assigned to six groups (n = 6/group) for 10 weeks: Control, Fructose (FRU; 20% fructose in drinking water), CP, CP + FRU, SK, and SK + FRU. CP and SK were administered by oral gavage (250 mg/kg/day) using corn oil as vehicle. Intestinal morphology, gene expression (RT-qPCR), and gut microbiota composition (16S rRNA sequencing) were assessed. Fructose significantly increased jejunal expression of the glucose transporters SGLT1 and GLUT2. CP and SK reversed SGLT1 and GLUT2 overexpression and reduced GLUT5 expression relative to the FRU group. Fructose also markedly increased expression of sweet taste receptors TAS1R2 and TAS1R3 and the transcription factors SREBP-1c and ChREBP. Both CP and SK normalized TAS1R2 and TAS1R3 expression, whereas SK additionally prevented SREBP-1c and ChREBP overexpression. Both by-products restored fructose-induced reductions in microbial richness and alpha diversity. CP also modified beta diversity and increased the abundance of the genus Blautia compared with FRU. In conclusion, CP and SK reversed several fructose-induced intestinal alterations, namely in the jejunal expression of sugar-sensing and absorption-related genes. Additionally, CP showed microbiota-modulating effects, whereas SK modulated the jejunal expression of key transcription factors (SREBP-1c and ChREBP) involved in carbohydrate and lipid metabolism. Overall, these findings suggest that CP and SK may represent promising candidates for mitigating fructose-induced intestinal alterations. Full article

Background: Patients with Kawasaki disease (KD) who develop coronary artery aneurysms (CAAs) are at increased risk of future fatal coronary events. Pharmacotherapeutic strategies to prevent coronary stenosis are still lacking. In this exploratory study, the therapeutic effect of the angiotensin receptor blocker (ARB) losartan on coronary artery (CA) stenosis was investigated in a murine model. Methods: Five-week-old male C57BL/6J mice were intraperitoneally injected with 1000 μg of Lactobacillus casei cell wall extract (LCWE) (n = 12) to induce CA stenosis. Two weeks later, the LCWE-injected mice (n = 12) were divided into two groups: six received drinking water containing losartan (100 mg/L) (LCWE+ARB), while six received normal drinking water (LCWE group). A control group (n = 5) received phosphate-buffered saline (PBS) instead of LCWE. Sixteen weeks after LCWE administration—corresponding to the peak of CA stenosis and 14 weeks after treatment initiation—the mice were euthanized for histological evaluation of the coronary arteries. Results: Losartan treatment significantly reduced the coronary arteritis score (median [IQR (interquartile range)]: 0 [0–9.5] vs. 21.5 [15–24.3], p = 0.003). LCWE-induced neointimal formation with vascular smooth muscle cell proliferation and subsequent CA stenosis were markedly attenuated in losartan-treated mice (25% vs. 100%, p < 0.001). Losartan-associated attenuation of CA stenosis was accompanied by the preservation of medial calponin expression, a reduction in the number of proliferating cell nuclear antigen (PCNA)-positive cells in the neointima, and a decrease in serum MMP-9 (matrix metalloproteinase-9) levels. Conclusions: These findings from a murine model of KD provide preliminary evidence that losartan may attenuate coronary artery remodeling. Further mechanistic studies are warranted to clarify its potential translational relevance. Full article

Background: Wild blueberries (WB), abundant in (poly)phenols such as anthocyanins and chlorogenic acids, have shown vascular benefits in several preclinical and epidemiological settings. However, evidence from human trials remains limited. This double-blind, randomized, placebo-controlled, crossover trial investigated the effects of the consumption of a WB drink on vascular reactivity and circulating adhesion molecules in healthy young adults. Methods: Participants received 300 mL of a WB drink (30 g of freeze-dried WB powder containing 740 mg total (poly)phenols, 460 mg total anthocyanins and 170 mg chlorogenic acid) or the same amount of a placebo (PL) drink. Blood pressure, heart rate, microvascular reactivity (i.e., reactive hyperemia index, RHI, lnRHI and FRHI) and arterial stiffness (i.e., augmentation index, AIx) were assessed at baseline and 2 h after consumption of the WB and PL drinks using Endo-PAT2000. In addition, plasma circulating adhesion molecules including vascular cell adhesion molecule-1 (VCAM-1), E-selectin, and cluster of differentiation 15 (CD 15 or Lewis x) were analyzed using ELISA. Results: Overall, analysis of variance did not show a significant effect of treatment on the modulation of markers of vascular function and adhesion molecules but revealed an effect of time, with an increase in terms of microvascular reactivity (RHI, p < 0.01; lnRHI, p < 0.05; FRHI, p < 0.001) and augmentation index (AIx, p < 0.01), and a reduction in the circulating levels of VCAM-1 (p < 0.001) following the intake of both WB and PL drinks. Conclusions: In conclusion, the intake of a WB drink failed to affect vascular function in young healthy subjects. Larger-scale and longer-term intervention studies, particularly in individuals at increased cardiovascular risk and in those with vascular dysfunction, are warranted to further explore the role of WB in modulating vascular reactivity. Full article

This study evaluated the effectiveness of regenerating WG-12 granular activated carbon used in drinking water treatment, based on a case study of the “Miedwie” Water Production Plant supplying the city of Szczecin, Poland. The investigation was conducted using samples collected from eight adsorption beds after five years of operation. Thermal regeneration was performed in a steam atmosphere at 600–850 °C for 20 min, and the regenerated samples were subsequently demineralized using a 1.75% HCl solution. The effectiveness of the process was evaluated using changes in the iodine number, BET specific surface area, bulk density, mechanical strength, regeneration mass yield, and an adsorption–mechanical trade-off index. Thermal regeneration substantially improved the adsorption properties of the spent carbon. The mean iodine number increased from 528.2 mg/g to 858.1 mg/g after regeneration at 800 °C, while the specific surface area increased from 480.4 to 806.9 m²/g. The application of demineralization further enhanced process efficiency. In the 800 °C + 1.75% HCl variant, an iodine number of 903.9 mg/g and a specific surface area of 883.6 m²/g were obtained, corresponding to recoveries of 95.1% and 98.2% of the reference values for virgin carbon, respectively. The improvement in adsorption properties was accompanied by a decrease in bulk density and a moderate reduction in mechanical strength. The most favorable process variant was regeneration at 800 °C combined with HCl demineralization, for which the adsorption–mechanical trade-off index reached 93.7%. The results indicate that regeneration of WG-12 effectively restores the adsorption potential of the material and may reduce the need for complete bed replacement while maintaining acceptable mechanical durability. The analysis also indicates that increasing the temperature to 850 °C is not technologically justified because it does not improve adsorption performance and simultaneously increases material loss, which is important from both economic and sustainability perspectives. The proposed I_SM index should be regarded as a supplementary screening tool for comparing regeneration variants within the same experimental system, whereas mass yield and cost-related aspects should be evaluated separately to avoid overstating the universality of the index. Full article

Given the lack of clinical data supporting the effects of a novel guava jelly drink on cognition and mood regulation, we aimed to explore these effects and their possible mechanisms in working-age volunteers. In an 8-week, three-arm double-blind, placebo-controlled trial, healthy males and females aged 20–40 years old (N = 25/arm) were randomly assigned to consume 86 g per day of either a placebo or guava jelly drink containing either a low (36.6%) or high (73.2%) dose of guava juice with mint syrup. N100 and P300 brain waves, working memory, Perceived Stress Scale (PSS), Hospital Anxiety and Depression Scale (HADS), and biomarkers related to oxidative stress, inflammation, neurotransmitters, and gut microbiota were assessed at baseline and after 4 and 8 weeks of consumption. The low-dose group showed improvements in N100 amplitude, P300 latency, and HADS anxiety score, whereas the high-dose group exhibited improved N100 amplitude, working memory, PSS score, and total HADS score. In addition, the high-dose group also exhibited increased GPx activity without a reduction in MDA. Overall, these results suggest that guava jelly drink positively modulates perceived stress, anxiety, selective attention, and working memory. However, the precise underlying mechanism requires further study. Full article

Drinking water treatment plants produce large quantities of Water Treatment Sludge (WTS), which negatively impacts the environment due to improper disposal. In this study, the mechanical performance of a hot-mix asphalt (HMA) containing WTS (referred to as HMA WTS) was evaluated and compared with a control mixture (HMA C), with a primary focus on its potential application in pavements constructed in warm-climate regions. In this way, the implementation of sustainable practices in road construction is promoted. The WTS was physicochemical characterized. Subsequently, the WTS was calcined at 200, 300, 500, and 800 °C to transform it into ash for use as filler (F). A calcination temperature of 500 °C was selected as optimal, based on the evaluation of the physical properties of mastic samples prepared with asphalt cement (AC) and calcined WTS. F/AC ratios of 0.11, 0.25, 0.43, and 0.67 were used, corresponding to filler contents between 0.5% and 2% in the HMA. Based on the stiffness and workability of the asphalt mastic, an F/AC ratio of 0.25 was selected, representing 1.0% filler in the HMA. Two mix designs (HMA C and HMA WTS) were developed according to the Marshall methodology to determine the Optimum Asphalt Content (OAC). Mechanical performance and durability tests were conducted to evaluate the behavior of the asphalt mixtures. The results indicate that WTS increased mastic stiffness, enhancing the mechanical performance of the HMA (greater resistance under monotonic loading and improved rutting and fatigue resistance) while reducing OAC, thus representing a promising alternative for its management and final disposal and contributes to sustainability in pavement engineering. However, durability-related properties (resistance to moisture damage, raveling, and abrasion) decreased due to the reduction in OAC. Full article

The progressive deterioration of surface water quality due to natural and anthropogenic factors, together with the limitations associated with conventional chemical coagulants, has driven the development of natural coagulants as sustainable alternatives for water treatment. In this context, the present study analyzed the production and application of a chitosan-based natural coagulant obtained from Oreochromis niloticus fish scales through a chemical method. The first phase involved biopolymer extraction through depigmentation, deproteinization, demineralization, and deacetylation; the second phase evaluated its performance as a coagulant using jar tests with water from the Magdalena River; and the third phase consisted of statistical analysis of the results using ANOVA. Yields of 78%, 78.20%, 88.52%, and 30% were obtained for each processing stage, and the chitosan achieved a degree of deacetylation of 76.87%, confirming its potential for water treatment applications. Optimal conditions were determined as a coagulant dosage of 300 mg/L and a flocculation time of 30 min, while ANOVA results indicated that both variables significantly influenced turbidity removal (p < 0.05). Under these conditions, a turbidity reduction of 76.30% was achieved. However, the final turbidity and color values did not meet Colombian regulatory standards, which was attributed to the presence of residual minerals and a moderate degree of deacetylation. Overall, the results demonstrate that chitosan derived from fish scales represents a sustainable alternative to chemical coagulants; however, process optimization and complementary treatment stages are required to meet drinking water standards. Full article